1. Andy Dawson Department of Information Studies, UCL
Publishing, Culture and Society G045 Information Science, Information Society and Information Economics
Andy Dawson
Department of Information Studies, UCL
Andy Dawson

2. What we’re going to be looking at (in brief!)
Far too much 
What is Information Science?
What is Information?
What is Information Society?
What is Information Economy?
… and what does that mean for us?

3. What is Information Science?
Views differ 
About the use of knowledge in practice
About interactions between people/ organisations and information systems
About a systemic view
About the relation between people and technology

4. A working definition
“The study of information and the manner in which it is communicated between humans within the context of the information phenomenon” (Wikiversity)
A multidisciplinary science studying all aspects of information processing systems (both natural and artificial)
Understanding people and technology to make them work better together!

5. Where did Information Science come from?
Roots arguably in “institutionalisation of science” in 18thC
Influenced by development of scientific literature and documentalism in 19thC
20thC real development of “modern” IS
Stemming from documentalist roots & organisation of scholarly literature
Disciplinary overlap makes it difficult to date the initialization of IS
Scientific journal publication and the documentation and organisation of knowledge at its genesis.
1st Scientific Journal “Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society” 1665
Modern IS “Invented by the Belgians”? 

6. Paul Otlet & Henri La Fontaine – The true Grandfathers of IS?
Paul Marie Ghislain Otlet 1868 – Henri La Fontaine
Both Belgian, both Lawyers!

7. Otlet & La Fontaine’s contributions
The Institute Internationale de Bibliographie
Universal Decimal Classification
The Repertoire Bibliographique Universel and the Mundaneum – the true precursor to the WWW? M
Otlet and Lafontaine not only envisioned later technical innovations but also a global vision for information and technologies – as per postwar visions of a global "information society." They established numerous organizations dedicated to standardization, bibliography, international association, and consequently, international cooperation.
Otlet founded the International Institute for Bibliography 1895 (became IFID, the International Federation for Information and Documentation”
Although he lived decades before computers and networks emerged, what he discussed prefigured what ultimately became the World Wide Web. His vision of a great network of knowledge focused on documents and included the notions of hyperlinks, search engines, remote access, and social networks.
In 1895, Otlet and La Fontaine also began the creation of a collection of index cards, meant to catalog facts, that came to be known as the "Repertoire Bibliographique Universel" (RBU), or the "Universal Bibliographic Repertory". By the end of 1895 it had grown to 400,000 entries; later it would reach a height of over 15 million.
In 1896, Otlet set up a fee-based service to answer questions by mail, by sending the requesters copies of the relevant index cards for each query. By 1912, this service responded to over 1,500 queries a year. Users of this service were even warned if their query was likely to produce more than 50 results per search.
Otlet envisioned a copy of the RBU in each major city around the world, with Brussels holding the master copy. At various times between 1900 and 1914, attempts were made to send full copies of the RBU to cities such as Paris, Washington, D.C. and Rio de Janeiro; however, difficulties in copying and transportation meant that no city received more than a few hundred thousand cards.
In , they published their classification scheme, which they termed the Universal Decimal Classification. The system defines not only detailed subject classifications, but also an algebraic notation for referring to the intersection of several subjects. UDC is an example of an analytico-synthetic classification, i.e. it permits the linking of one concept to another. Although some have described it as faceted, it is not, though there are some faceted elements in it. A true faceted classification consists solely of simple concepts; there are many compound concepts listed in the UDC.
In 1919, soon after the end of World War I, they convinced the government of Belgium to give them the space and funding for a “Palais Mondial” (renamed “Mundaneum” in 1924), that would serve as a central repository for the world's information.. They were given space in the Palais du Cinquantenaire in Brussels. Based on the RBU it steadily grew to 13 million index cards in 1927; by its final year, 1934, it had reached over 15 million. Index cards were stored in custom-designed cabinets, and indexed according to the Universal Decimal Classification. The collection also grew to include files (including letters, reports, newspaper articles, etc.) and images, contained in separate rooms; the index cards were meant to catalog all of these as well. The Mundaneum eventually contained 100,000 files and millions of images.
In 1934, the Belgian government cut off funding for the project, and the offices were closed until 1940, when Germany invaded.. Requisitioning the Mundaneum's quarters and destroying substantial amounts of its collections in the process, the Germans forced Otlet and his colleagues to find a new home where they reconstituted the Mundaneum as best as they could, but was never properly rebuilt.
In 1985, Belgian academic André Canonne raised the possibility of recreating the Mundaneum as an archive and museum devoted to Otlet and others associated with them. Cannone, with substantial help from others, eventually managed to open the new Mundaneum in Mons, Belgium in This museum is still in operation, and contains the personal papers of Otlet and La Fontaine and the archives of the various organizations they created along with other collections important to the modern history of Belgium.
ADI founded 1937: later became ASIST (American Society for Information Science)

8. Transition to today’s IS
Early 20thC institutes and awareness
LA, Aslib, ADI/ASIST, Farradane
The arrival of computing
Development of the IIS
Information retrieval and information seeking
Brookes and the cognitive approach
ALA founded 1876
LA founded 1877, royal charter 1898
Aslib founded 1924
ADI founded 1937: later (1968) became ASIST (American Society for Information Science)
IIS founded 1958 at the Institution of Electrical Engineers (now the Institution of Engineering and Technology)
IS at city 1967
CILIP merger 2002
Benjamin Fulman worked at the British Non-Ferrous Metals Association as (the first” “information officer”: 1923 organised a meeting discussing “information problems” (to which the LA were invited but declined to attend!) : second meeting led to the foundation of ASLIB (1924)
Librarians in Aslib were opposed to a shift to “new needs” which led to a fragmentation and turned down Farraadane’s proposals (1952) – ultimately led to establishment of IIS in 1958 to “maintain high standards in scientific anc technical information work” & to establish qualifications

9. But what is “Information”?
An everyday thing, yet hard to define!
First need to think about it a little in terms of philosophy –
Nature of knowledge
Representation
Need for a philosophical worldview (context)
…hopefully without becoming too philosophical!

10. Is the cow there, what is a cow, how do we know it’s real….
Metaphysical concerns - Nature and structure of existence and being, specifically, questions of what kind of things exist
Ontological concerns - how the contents of the conceptualised world are defined, ordered and classified
Epistemological concerns - The “study of knowledge” (“Justified, true belief”), how we get our beliefs and how we “know” they are true
Realist metaphysics vs Idealism/ideology
Two key approaches:
Fallibilism (or critical rationalism)
Knowledge is whatever we cannot prove to be wrong
Probabilism
In the absence of certainty experience shows likely correctness
Wittgenstein’s “language games”

11. Formal models of Information
Information Theory (Shannon & Weaver)
Eliot’s Pyramid (Eliot: Checkland & Howell, Orna)
Three Worlds (Popper)
Cognitive model (after Brookes)

12. Introduced by electrical engineers Shannon and Weaver in 1949
Information Theory
Introduced by electrical engineers Shannon and Weaver in 1949
Concerned with properties of communication systems
Addressing concepts of message generation and transmission
They were concerned with the properties of communications systems, like the
telephone network, and trying to work out the mathematical rules that govern
communication in complex networks like this.

13. Information Theory Fundamental to all such systems are a
number of key concepts. For communication to take place at all, a message has to be
generated. This message then needs to be transmitted across a wire or a network to its
destination. In an electronic system like the telephone network, the message (voice)
needs to be encoded into an electronic signal and then decoded at the other end. This
can introduce some distortion and there may also be some noise on the network (recall
what a long-distance call sounds like). Fundamentally, information theory is about
these processes of encoding, decoding, transmission and noise, and Shannon and
Weaver were practical engineers looking for ways to understand these things so that
telephone networks could be designed more efficiently.
Strictly speaking information theory, deals with the mathematical analysis of
communication systems. In truth, this was simply an unfortunate use of the term -
signaling theory would have been more appropriate – and it has caused some
confusion ever since.

14. Information Theory

15. Intended for telecomms…and superficially process oriented
Information Theory
Intended for telecomms…and superficially process oriented
BUT far wider implications.
Application of method has introduced information concepts into core science
Stonier’s arguments that “Information is a basic property of the universe” – Genomics?
However, one unexpected result of Shannon and Weaver's work was the application of
these methods, and by implication the explicit introduction of information concepts, into
the core of science itself: both the physical sciences and biological sciences.
Information physics is a subject of considerable interest. Information is viewed here as
a fundamental factor within the physical universe, analogous to energy, matter, space
and time, such that fundamental physical laws may be rewritten in terms of information.
Tom Stonier has gone further, arguing that information is a basic property of the
universe. In the biological sciences, there is an increasing interest, particularly
associated with the human genome project, in information as a fundamental biological
property, referring to the information content, again measured in statistical information
theory terms, of the genome.

16. Named after T.S.Eliot’s lines from “Choruses from the rock”:
Eliot’s Pyramid
Named after T.S.Eliot’s lines from “Choruses from the rock”:
Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge
Where is the knowledge we have lost in information
Further developed by Checkland and Holwell, inter alia
If defining `information’ weren’t hard enough, we also find ourselves using terms with
similar meanings: data, knowledge, wisdom, almost interchangeably. What is their
inter-relation?
Perhaps the most commonly quoted relationship between these concepts is that given
by T.S. Elliot in his poem Choruses from the Rock:
Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge
Where is the knowledge we have lost in information

17. Eliot’s Pyramid
Elliot's lines remind us of the generally accepted progression between the concepts of
wisdom, knowledge and information; to which we may add data. These are
conventionally seen as forming a pyramid - or sometimes a simple linear or scalar
progression - with the broad mass of data at the base being distilled to the peak of
wisdom. It is pragmatically accepted that the "distillation" process involves what are
generally termed "value added" activities: summarising, evaluating, comparing,
classifying, etc. Also, moving from data to wisdom is generally seen as setting
information within a context, or framework, of existing knowledge, the context giving
the meaning.

18. Eliot’s Pyramid “It’s raining!”
Simple observation or fact = data
The barometer reading fell and it started raining
Simple relationship between two facts, adding context = information
If humidity is high and both temperature and air pressure drop then the atmosphere is unable to hold moisture and it rains
Complex relationships, cause and effect, prediction = knowledge

19. Eliot’s Pyramid More human judgement, more effort, greater expense
Less context, less meaning

20. Eliot’s Pyramid - Checkland & Holwell
Checkland and Holwell (1998) give a clear account of this viewpoint, adding an addition of context, and hence meaning, and from information to knowledge as involving the creation of large structures of related information.
additional element: capta - those data to which one pays some interest - between data
and information. They see the transformation from capta to information as involving the addition of context, and hence meaning, and from information to knowledge as involving the creation of large structures of related information.
Capta?

21. Eliot’s Pyramid – Orna’s view
Knowledge as a form of Information which can “exist” only with an individual’s mind
To be communicable it must be made objective and recordable
This “Objectivised” form is termed information
There is, however, an alternative way of regarding the inter-relations of these concepts.
This regards knowledge as a form of information which can 'exist' only within an
individual's mind; to be communicable, it must be made objective and recordable, and
this 'objectivised' form is termed information. As Elisabeth Orna puts it:
Knowledge and information are separate but interacting entities; we transform one into
another constantly ... the transformation of information into knowledge and knowledge
into information, forms the basis for all human learning and communication

22. Orna’s view
“Knowledge and information are separate but interacting entities; we transform one into another constantly ... the transformation of information into knowledge and knowledge into information, forms the basis for all human learning and communication”

23. Eliot’s Pyramid – Systems analytic views
“Hard” systems thinkers (e.g.Date) suggest no worthwhile distinction between information and data
“Soft” systems thinkers (e.g. Checkland) see Information and Data as completely separate concepts (Information – Data + meaning”)
Another perspective on the inter-relations between these concepts comes from the field
of systems thinking. Systems analysis, as a means of understanding problems and
finding solutions, has the concept of information at its core. However, the concept is
understood quite differently in the two main alternative approaches, which are usually
termed 'hard' and 'soft' systems methodologies. The difference lies in the distinction, or
lack of it, made between information and the related concepts noted above.
For hard systems proponents, there is no worthwhile distinction between information
and data. Thus Date, in his classic book on the area, can say:
the terms data and information are treated synonymously in this book. Some writers
distinguish between the two … [but] it seems preferable to make [any distinction] explicit
where relevant, instead of relying on a somewhat arbitrary differentiation between two
essentially similar terms.
Conversely, for the proponents of the soft systems methodology, information and data
are entirely separate, though linked, concepts. The nature of the linkage is summarised
by Peter Checkland as
information equals data plus meaning
and
[the] transformation of data into information by the attribution of meaning makes the study
of information a very broad and hybrid field
It will therefore be clear that, just as there is no generally agreed definition for
information, so there is no generally agreed set of relations between it and other related
terms. This has not, of course, prevented many sterile arguments as to what
information and knowledge, for example, actually are, and how one is made into the
other.

24. Karl Popper – famous philosopher of science
Popper’s Three Worlds
Karl Popper – famous philosopher of science
theory of growth of scientific knowledge based on falsification of hypotheses and theories, and hence development of better versions, rather than on any means of justifying knowledge
developed an epistemology based on the idea of three 'worlds'.
Karl Popper is best known as a philosopher of science, and as the proponent of a
theory of the growth of scientific knowledge based on the falsification of hypotheses
and theories, and hence the development of better versions, rather than on any means
of justifying knowledge. His philosophical thought ranged over several other areas,
including social and political matters, and education. At the core of all of his writings is
the idea that human knowledge cannot be, and need not be justified, and that
consequently all knowledge is fallible and imperfect, and able to be improved. As part
of his analysis of the way in which knowledge, particularly scientific knowledge is
created and extended, he developed an epistemology based on the idea of three
'worlds'.

25. Popper’s Three Worlds
World 1 is the material world of physical objects: people, books, computers and so on
World 2 is the interior mental world of thinking beings, the subjective realm of thoughts, emotions and individual personality.
World 3 is the world of objective, communicable knowledge; the contents, rather than the physical instantiation of books, databases, letters, libraries and other information packages.
Although Popper developed this idea, with considerable subtlely, at numerous points in
his writings [the best self-contained description is probably two chapters of his
Objective Knowledge], the basic concept is simple. World 1 is the material world of
physical objects: people, books, computers and so on. World 2 is the interior mental
world of thinking beings, the subjective realm of thoughts, emotions and individual personality. World 3 is the world of objective, communicable knowledge; the contents,
rather than the physical instantiation of books, databases, letters, libraries and other
information packages.
If therefore, we think of the use of an 'information package', a journal article for
example, it encompasses all three worlds. The World 1 object, the physical journal
issue, is read by someone. Its information content, World 3, is available to them, but
only through a series of World 2 events - the internal understanding of the content, and
its integration with the existing knowledge of the reader. Clearly, two different readers
taking it in turn to read the same article, and hence the same World 1 and World 3
entities, will have quite different - and subjective and private - World 2 experiences. If
the article is read in the form of an e-journal on a screen, the World 1 objects will be
quite different, but the World 3 content will remain the same. The worlds interact with
one another, with World 2 central to the interactions.
This has an intuitive appeal in the realm of the information sciences. It identifies the two
components which, I think, would be accepted a components of any 'information
system', in the broadest sense: physical information packages and sentient users of
them. World 3 is slightly more difficult, but can roughly be equated with the idea of the
'content' of the information packages.
Popper describes World 3 in slightly different terms at various points in his writings. He
always takes it to include 'of course, the contents of journals, books and libraries', as
well as problems, theories, and critical arguments. In other places, he suggests a wider
scope, with entities such as institutions and works of art being included. Popper argues
that World 3, far from being merely a convenient shorthand way of saying 'the content
of information packages', is a crucial concept in understanding the growth of
knowledge. It is a central aspect of his vision of the creation and expansion of
objective, communicable knowledge, which may exist without a 'knowing subject'.
World 3 has, in Popper's terms, an independent, autonomous existence. It is
independent of any particular 'knower'. Popper gives the example of a printed book of
mathematical tables, produced by computer and never read by anyone. No-one has, in
any sense, 'known' what was in it, but Popper argues that it contains knowledge
nonetheless. It is autonomous in that, at any particular time, it contains results and
entities which are not yet known by anyone, but which are implicit in the rest of the
content of World 3. The primary example which Popper gives of this is mathematics;
given that World 3 contains the integers, and the axioms which relate to them, it must
necessarily contain all the theorems of number theory, whether or not these have yet
been discovered.

26. Popper’s Three Worlds example
Imagine an “Information package” – e.g. a journal article.
The World 1 object, the physical journal issue, is read by someone.
Its information content, World 3, is available to them, but only through a series of World 2 events - the internal understanding of the content, and its integration with the existing knowledge of the reader

27. Popper’s Three Worlds example
Two different readers taking it in turn to read the same article, and hence the same World 1 and World 3 entities, will have quite different - and subjective and private - World 2 experiences.
If the article is read in the form of an e-journal on a screen, the World 1 objects will be quite different, but the World 3 content will remain the same.
The Worlds interact with one another, with World 2 central to the interactions.
If therefore, we think of the use of an 'information package', a journal article for
example, it encompasses all three worlds. The World 1 object, the physical journal
issue, is read by someone. Its information content, World 3, is available to them, but
only through a series of World 2 events - the internal understanding of the content, and
its integration with the existing knowledge of the reader. Clearly, two different readers
taking it in turn to read the same article, and hence the same World 1 and World 3
entities, will have quite different - and subjective and private - World 2 experiences. If
the article is read in the form of an e-journal on a screen, the World 1 objects will be
quite different, but the World 3 content will remain the same. The worlds interact with
one another, with World 2 central to the interactions.
This has an intuitive appeal in the realm of the information sciences. It identifies the two
components which, I think, would be accepted a components of any 'information
system', in the broadest sense: physical information packages and sentient users of
them. World 3 is slightly more difficult, but can roughly be equated with the idea of the
'content' of the information packages.
Popper describes World 3 in slightly different terms at various points in his writings. He
always takes it to include 'of course, the contents of journals, books and libraries', as
well as problems, theories, and critical arguments. In other places, he suggests a wider
scope, with entities such as institutions and works of art being included. Popper argues
that World 3, far from being merely a convenient shorthand way of saying 'the content
of information packages', is a crucial concept in understanding the growth of
knowledge. It is a central aspect of his vision of the creation and expansion of
objective, communicable knowledge, which may exist without a 'knowing subject'.
World 3 has, in Popper's terms, an independent, autonomous existence. It is
independent of any particular 'knower'. Popper gives the example of a printed book of
mathematical tables, produced by computer and never read by anyone. No-one has, in
any sense, 'known' what was in it, but Popper argues that it contains knowledge
nonetheless. It is autonomous in that, at any particular time, it contains results and
entities which are not yet known by anyone, but which are implicit in the rest of the
content of World 3. The primary example which Popper gives of this is mathematics;
given that World 3 contains the integers, and the axioms which relate to them, it must
necessarily contain all the theorems of number theory, whether or not these have yet
been discovered.

28. This is an intuitively appealing model
Popper’s Three Worlds
This is an intuitively appealing model
World 3 should be seen not just as shorthand for “the content of information packages” but as “objective, communicable knowledge” which may exist without a 'knowing subject‘ – it is autonomous
Interestingly Popper also liked the idea of “Evolutionary Epistemology”, in which human evolution proceeds “exosomatically”.
This has an intuitive appeal in the realm of the information sciences. It identifies the two
components which, I think, would be accepted a components of any 'information
system', in the broadest sense: physical information packages and sentient users of
them. World 3 is slightly more difficult, but can roughly be equated with the idea of the
'content' of the information packages.
Popper describes World 3 in slightly different terms at various points in his writings. He
always takes it to include 'of course, the contents of journals, books and libraries', as
well as problems, theories, and critical arguments. In other places, he suggests a wider
scope, with entities such as institutions and works of art being included. Popper argues
that World 3, far from being merely a convenient shorthand way of saying 'the content
of information packages', is a crucial concept in understanding the growth of
knowledge. It is a central aspect of his vision of the creation and expansion of
objective, communicable knowledge, which may exist without a 'knowing subject'.
World 3 has, in Popper's terms, an independent, autonomous existence. It is
independent of any particular 'knower'. Popper gives the example of a printed book of
mathematical tables, produced by computer and never read by anyone. No-one has, in
any sense, 'known' what was in it, but Popper argues that it contains knowledge
nonetheless. It is autonomous in that, at any particular time, it contains results and
entities which are not yet known by anyone, but which are implicit in the rest of the
content of World 3.

29. Popper’s Three Worlds Popper uses mathematics as a prime example:
World 3 contains the integers, and the axioms which relate to them, and thus necessarily also all theorems, whether or not these have yet been discovered
The primary example which Popper gives of this is mathematics;
given that World 3 contains the integers, and the axioms which relate to them, it must
necessarily contain all the theorems of number theory, whether or not these have yet
been discovered.
In turn, this was part of a more general theory of 'evolutionary epistemology', by which
he held that human evolution proceeded 'exosomatically': 'human evolution proceeds
largely by developing new organs outside our bodies or persons ... instead of growing
better memories or brains we grow paper, pens, pencils, typewriters, dictaphones, the
printing press, and libraries ... the latest development (used mainly in the support of
argumentative capabilities) is the growth of the computer'

30. Cognitive model
Brookes proposed that these ideas could serve as a philosophical basis for Information Science
His writings are generally regarded as the foundation of the “Cognitive” approach to Information Science.

31. Cognitive model
Knowledge is something intrinsic to, and only existing within, the human mind and cognition
Knowledge, being subjective, cannot be directly transferred or communicated from one person to another
Knowledge must thus be converted into information to be transferred or communicated.

32. Cognitive model
Information is regarded as the objective - and therefore communicable and recordable - form of knowledge.
Information is thus the bridge between the subjective knowledge in people's heads.
This model regards knowledge as something intrinsic to, and only existing within, the
human mind and cognition. Knowledge, being subjective, cannot be directly transferred
or communicated from one person to another, but must be converted into information
first. Information is then regarded as the objective - and therefore communicable and
recordable - form of knowledge. Information is thus the bridge between the subjective
knowledge in people's heads. It is sometimes whimsically termed the LS Lowry model
because it can be well represented through the stick figures of the English painter LS
Lowry.
This model underlies much of the cognitive approach to information science, espoused
by writers such as Brookes (1980), and owes much to Popper's ideas of a distinction
between World II of subjective knowledge and World III of objective knowledge, but
which in this context we can term information.

33. In conclusion
Information models are important, and varied, ways of looking at the world
They are of more than just academic interest - the way we understand information problems in the workplace (our `worldview’) will influence what we do to address those problems.

34. What then is Information Society ?
A post-industrial development for a post--modern view?
economic models
technological models
sociological models
fordism and social dislocation
historical models
information has history
epistemology?
Is it real?
Post-industrial development – technology as the tool to take us to the information economy (vis steam engine and industrialisation)
Postmodern society

35. Technological Determinism v Utopianism
Technological Determinism - social change driven by tech development
Utopianism - progress and improvement towards ultimate goal of ideal society
Change is happening
but is it for the better? exploitation, exclusion, authoritarianism

36. Information Society issues
Social capital
Range of "Information Workers"
Skills for the information society
"Coherent" information
Trust, Retrievability
Connectivity
Distributed services, E-commerce
Disconnection of product/service from place

37. Information Society issues
Social exclusion
Information literacy
Virtual communities and simulation
Information overload
not new - just relative

38. Information Society issues
Control and intervention
Of government into society
of the individual into the information world
"Privatisation" - free vs paid
Cloud computing issues
Quality of content to fulfil lives/needs

39. Information as a commodity Information property, capital, labour
Information Economy
Machlup
Porat
Information as a commodity
Information property, capital, labour
Intellectual property, rights and exploitation
Trad publishing vs open access
cost, price and value
Fritz Machlup (December 15, 1902 – January 30, 1983) was an Austrian-American economist. He was notable for being one of the first economists to examine knowledge as an economic resource.
He fled Nazi Germany for the United States in 1933 and became a US citizen in 1940.
key work was The Production and Distribution of Knowledge in the United States (1962), which is credited with popularizing the concept of the information society, in which he wrote that the knowledge industry represents 29% of the US gross national product and is the beginning of the Information age.
Cpncept of knowledge economy comes from Machlup. He was the first to measure knowledge as a broad concept including distibution as well as production. His calcs gave rise to a whole literature on knowledge economy, its policies and measurement.
“Operationalization” of knowledge (scientific and ordinary, production and dissemination) into 4 components: education, R&D, communication and information
The first wave (70s) was concerned with the so-called information economy (fairly interchanging knowledge and information as terms) . Porat took this on and developed it, extending form US to other countries.
Second wave studies (90s) taken on internationally (eg OECD) based on Machlup’s concepts
(See Godin:

40. Knowledge-based economy replaces capitalism?
Neo-marxists say no
Key market features have intensified, - private ownership of information
Enclosures: common methods of farming superseded by "agriculture of the market"
Global comms, global markets
Significance of information and knowledge work
Illusory?

41. Information Policy Regulation vs market forces
Freedom of information vs control
Surveillance society and authoritarianism
reduces us to "simulations" - one-dimensional types (consumers, insurance risks, junk mail targets)
Lifelong learning
Utopian progression -> "Culture" (Banks) ?

42. That’s it for today!
Questions?