1. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 1 Final Exam is Mon Dec 21, 5:05 pm - 7:05 pm 2103 Chamberlin 3 equation sheets allowed About 30% on new material Rest on topics of exam1, exam2, exam3. Week15HW covers material for final, but does not count toward HW grade. From Last Time… Nuclear structure and isotopes Binding energy of nuclei

2. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 2 Radioactive nuclei ~ equal # neutrons and protons

3. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 3 Radioactive decay Unstable nuclei decay by emitting particle Can be photon (light particle), or matter particle. Emitted particle carries away energy –Can strip electrons from atoms (ionizing radiation) –break apart chemical bonds in living cells (radiation damage) Geiger counter

4. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 4 Biological effects of radiation Radiation typeRBE X-rays1 Gamma rays1 Beta particles1-2 Alpha particles10-20 Radiation damage depends on – Energy deposited / tissue mass (1 Gy (gray) = 1J/kg) – Damaging effect of particle (RBE, relative biological effectiveness) Dose equivalent = ( Energy deposited / tissue mass) x RBE – Units of Sv (sieverts) [older unit = rem, 1 rem=0.01 Sv] – Common units mSv (10 -3 Sv), mrem (10 -3 rem) – Common ‘safe’ limit = 500 mrem/yr (5 mSv/yr)

5. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 5 Radioactive tracers Worked on radioactivity as student with Ernest Rutherford. Lodged in nearby boarding home. Suspected his landlady was serving meals later in week ‘recycled’ from the Sunday meat pie. His landlady denied this! deHevesy described his first foray into nuclear medicine: George de Hevesy “The coming Sunday in an unguarded moment I added some radioactive deposit [lead-212] to the freshly prepared pie and on the following Wednesday, with the aid of an electroscope, I demonstrated to the landlady the presence of the active deposit in the soufflé.”

6. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 6 A random process Radioactive decay is a random process –It has some probability of occurring. For one nucleus, – –r = decay rate For N nuclei, –# decays  N = N x Prob(decay) =rN  t –# decays / s =  N/  t =rN

7. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 7 Radioactive half-life Example of random decay. Start with 8,000 identical radioactive nuclei After one half-life, half the nuclei have decayed. t=0t=1 yrt=2 yrt=3 yr Every half-life, half the atoms decay Undecayed nuclei

8. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 8 Radioactive decay question A piece of radioactive material is initially observed to have 10,000 radioactive nuclei. 3 hours later, you measure 1,250 radiaoctive nuclei. The half-life is A.1/2 hour B.1 hour C.3 hours D.8 hours In each half-life, the number of radioactive nuclei, and hence the number of decays / second, drops by a factor of two. After 1 half life, 5000 are left undecayed. After 2 half lives, 1/2 of these are left: 2,500 After 3 half lives there are 1,250 left.

9. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 9 Radioactive decay question A piece of radioactive material is initially observed to have 1,000 decays/sec. It’s half life is 2 days. Four days later, you measure A.1,000 decays / sec B.500 decays / sec C.250 decays / sec D.125 decays / sec

10. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 10 Decay rate r (Units of s -1 ) Prob( nucleus decays in time  t ) = r  t Activity R (Units of becquerel (1 Bq=1 s -1 ) or curie (1 Ci=3.7x10 10 s -1 ) Mean # decays / s = rN, N=# nuclei in sample Half-life t 1/2 (Units of s) time for half of nuclei to decay = t 1/2 Quantifying radioactivity

11. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 11 Different types of radioactivity Three different types of decay observed: Alpha decay Beta decay Gamma decay (First three letters of Greek alphabet). Ernest Rutherford (1899): "These experiments show that the uranium radiation is complex and that there are present at least two distinct types of radiation - one that is very readily absorbed, which will be termed for convenience the alpha-radiation, and the other of more penetrative character which will be termed the beta-radiation."

12. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 12 Heavy nucleus spontaneously emits alpha particle Example of  decay nucleus loses 2 neutrons and 2 protons. It becomes a different element (Z is changed) Example: 92 protons 146 neutrons 90 protons 144 neutrons 2 protons 2 neutrons Alpha particle

13. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 13 Decay sequence of 238 U Number of neutrons Number of protons  decay

14. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 14 Radon Zone 1 Highest Potential (greater than 4 pCi/L) Zone 2 Moderate Potential (from 2 to 4 pCi/L) http://www.radonwisconsin.com/ Radon is in the 238 U decay series Radon is an  emitter that presents an environmental hazard Inhalation of radon and its daughters can ionize lung cells increasing risk of lung cancer

15. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 15 Activity of Radon 222 Rn has a half-life of 3.83 days. Suppose your basement has 4.0 x 10 8 such nuclei in the air. What is the activity? We are trying to find number of decays/sec. So we have to know decay constant to get R= r N

16. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 16 Decay sequence of 238 U Number of neutrons Number of protons  decay But what are these?

17. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 17 Beta decay Number of neutrons Number of protons Number of neutrons decreases by one Number of protons increases by one Electron (beta particle) emitted But nucleus has only neutrons & protons.

18. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 18 Beta decay Nucleus emits an electron (negative charge) Must be balanced by a positive charge appearing in the nucleus. This occurs as a neutron changing into a proton

19. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 19 Changing particles Neutron made up of quarks. One of the down quarks changed to an up quark. New combination of quarks is a proton.

20. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 20 beta decay example Used in radioactive carbon dating. Half-life 5,730 years. 8 neutrons 6 protons 7 neutrons 7 protons 14 nucleons 6 positive charges 7 positive charges = = + 1 electron + 1 negative charge

21. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 21 Radiocarbon dating 14 C has a half-life of ~6,000 years, continually decaying back into 14 N. Steady-state achieved in atmosphere, with 14 C: 12 C ratio ~ 1:1 trillion (1 part in 10 12 ) As long as biological material alive, atmospheric carbon mix ingested (as CO 2 ), ratio stays fixed. After death, no exchange with atmosphere. Ratio starts to change as 14 C decays

22. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 22 Carbon-dating question The 14 C: 12 C ratio in a fossil bone is found to be 1/8 that of the ratio in the bone of a living animal. The half-life of 14 C is 5,730 years. What is the approximate age of the fossil? A.7,640 years B.17,200 years C.22,900 years D.45,800 years Since the ratio has been reduced by a factor of 8, three half-lives have passed. 3 x 5,730 years = 17,190 years

23. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 23 Other carbon decays Lightest isotopes of carbon emit positron –antiparticle of electron, has positive charge! 3 neutrons 6 protons 4 neutrons 5 protons + e+e+ This is antimatter Too few neutrons Too many neutrons B 9 5 C 9 6

24. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 24 Gamma decay Alpha decay (alpha particle emitted), Beta decay (electron or positron emitted), can leave nucleus in excited state –Nucleus has excited states just like hydrogen atom –Emits photon as it drops to lower state. Nucleus also emits photon as it drops to ground state This is gamma radiation Extremely high energy photons. Ni 60 28 Ni 60 28

25. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 25 Decay summary Alpha decay –Nucleus emits He nucleus (2 protons, 2 neutrons) –Nucleus loses 2 protons, 2 neutrons Beta - decay –Nucleus emits electron –Neutron changes to proton in nucleus Beta + decay –Nucleus emits positron –Proton changes to neutron in nucleus Gamma decay –Nucleus emits photon as it drops from excited state

26. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 26 Decay question 20 Na decays in to 20 Ne, a particle is emitted? What particle is it? Na atomic number = 11 Ne atomic number = 10 A.Alpha B.Electron beta C.Positron beta D.Gamma 20 Na has 11 protons, 9 neutrons 20 Ne has 10 protons, 10 neutrons So one a proton (+ charge ) changed to a neutron (0 charge) in this decay. A positive particle had to be emitted.

27. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 27 Radiation Therapy 50-60% of cancer patients treated with radiation Goal: disable cancerous cells without hurting healthy cells X-rays or  -rays ( 60 Co) from 20 KV to 25 MV

28. Tues. Dec 14, 2009Phy208 Lecture 29 28 Exposure from laboratory source 60 Co source has an activity of 1 µCurie Each decay: 1.3 MeV photon emitted Assume all absorbed by a 1 kg section of your body for 1 hour Energy absorbed in 1 kg = What dose do you receive? A.0.5 rem B.0.3 rem C.0.1 rem D.0.05 rem E.0.003 rem