1. The Structure and Function of Large Biological Molecules

2. Overview: The Molecules of Life
All living things are made up of four classes of large biological molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
Within cells, small organic molecules are joined together to form larger molecules
Macromolecules are large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected atoms
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3. Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks
These small building-block molecules are called monomers
Three of the four classes of life’s organic molecules are polymers:
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Nucleic acids
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4. The Synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
A dehydration reaction occurs when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule
Enzymes are macromolecules that speed up the dehydration process
Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis, a reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction
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5. Dehydration removes a water molecule, forming a new bond H2O
Fig. 5-2a HO 1 2 3 H HO H
Short polymer
Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes a water
molecule, forming a new bond
H2O
Figure 5.2 The synthesis and breakdown of polymers HO 1 2 3 4 H
Longer polymer
(a)
Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer

6. HO 1 2 3 4 H H2O HO 1 2 3 H HO H (b) Hydrolysis adds a water
Fig. 5-2b HO 1 2 3 4 H
Hydrolysis adds a water
molecule, breaking a bond
H2O
Figure 5.2 The synthesis and breakdown of polymers HO 1 2 3 H HO H
(b)
Hydrolysis of a polymer

7. Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material
Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars
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8. Sugars
The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or single sugars
Monosaccharides serve as a major fuel for cells and as raw material for building molecules
Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common monosaccharide
fructose
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9. Though often drawn as linear skeletons, in aqueous solutions
many sugars form rings
(a) Linear and ring forms
Figure 5.4 Linear and ring forms of glucose
(b) Abbreviated ring structure

10. This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage Lactose and sucrose
A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides
This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage
Lactose and sucrose
Glucose
Glucose
Maltose
(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of maltose
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11. Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides (many sugars) have storage and structural roles
Starch, in plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers
Glycogen is found in animals (liver and muscle cells)
Chitin, another structural polysaccharide, is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
Cellulose is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells
Two ring forms for glucose:
alpha (=helical) and beta (=straight)
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12. Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
Lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that do not form polymers
Lipids are hydrophobic
The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids
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13. Fats
Fats are constructed from two types of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids
Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon
A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton
Fat molecule
(triacylglycerol)
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14. Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds
Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds
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15. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature
Most animal fats are saturated
Unsaturated fats or oils are liquid at room temperature
Plant fats and fish fats are usually unsaturated
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16. The major function of fats is energy storage
Humans and other mammals store their fat in adipose cells
Adipose tissue also cushions vital organs and insulates the body
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17. Phospholipids
In a phospholipid, two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol
The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head
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18. Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tail WATER WATER
Fig. 5-14
Hydrophilic
head
WATER
Figure 5.14 Bilayer structure formed by self-assembly of phospholipids in an aqueous environment
Hydrophobic
tail
WATER

19. Steroids
Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
Cholesterol, an important steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes
For the Cell Biology Video Space Filling Model of Cholesterol, go to Animation and Video Files.
For the Cell Biology Video Stick Model of Cholesterol, go to Animation and Video Files.
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20. Proteins have many structures, resulting in a wide range of functions
Protein functions include:
structural support
storage
Transport
cellular communications
movement
defense against foreign substances
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21. Table 5-1
Table 5-1

22. Enzymes are a type of protein that acts as a catalyst to speed up chemical reactions
Enzymes work by lowering activation energy (energy required to start a reaction)
Enzyme
(sucrase)
Substrate
(sucrose) OH
Glucose
H2O O H
Fructose
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23. Polypeptides
Polypeptides are polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids
A protein consists of one or more polypeptides
The sequence of amino acids determines a protein’s three-dimensional structure
A protein’s structure determines its function
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24. Amino Acid Monomers
Amino acids are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups
Amino acids differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called R groups
Amino
group
Carboxyl
group
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25. Figure 5.17 The 20 amino acids of proteins
Nonpolar
Glycine
(Gly or G)
Alanine
(Ala or A)
Valine
(Val or V)
Leucine
(Leu or L)
Isoleucine
(Ile or I)
Methionine
(Met or M)
Phenylalanine
(Phe or F)
Trypotphan
(Trp or W)
Proline
(Pro or P)
Polar
Serine
(Ser or S)
Threonine
(Thr or T)
Cysteine
(Cys or C)
Tyrosine
(Tyr or Y)
Asparagine
(Asn or N)
Glutamine
(Gln or Q)
Figure 5.17 The 20 amino acids of proteins
Electrically
charged
Acidic
Basic
Aspartic acid
(Asp or D)
Glutamic acid
(Glu or E)
Lysine
(Lys or K)
Arginine
(Arg or R)
Histidine
(His or H)

26. Amino Acid Polymers Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds
A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids
Polypeptides range in length from a few to more than a thousand monomers
Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids
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27. Protein Structure and Function
A functional protein consists of one or more polypeptides twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape
A ribbon model of lysozyme
A space-filling model of lysozyme
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28. Four Levels of Protein Structure
Primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids (genetic info)
Secondary structure, consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain
Tertiary structure is determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups)
Quaternary structure results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains
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29. +H3N Primary Structure Amino end Amino acid subunits 1 5 10 15 20 25
Fig. 5-21a
Primary Structure 1 5
+H3N
Amino end 10
Amino acid
subunits 15
Figure 5.21 Levels of protein structure—primary structure 20 25

30. Secondary Structure
 pleated sheet
Examples of
amino acid
subunits
Figure 5.21 Levels of protein structure—secondary structure
 helix
Typical secondary structures are a coil called an  helix and a folded structure called a  pleated sheet

31. What Determines Protein Structure?
In addition to primary structure, physical and chemical conditions can affect structure
Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other environmental factors can cause a protein to unravel
This loss of a protein’s native structure is called denaturation
A denatured protein is biologically inactive
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32. Denaturation Normal protein Denatured protein Renaturation
Fig. 5-23
Denaturation
Figure 5.23 Denaturation and renaturation of a protein
Normal protein
Denatured protein
Renaturation

33. Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information
The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a gene
Genes are made of DNA, a nucleic acid
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34. The Roles of Nucleic Acids
There are two types of nucleic acids:
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis
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35. DNA 1 Synthesis of mRNA in the nucleus mRNA NUCLEUS CYTOPLASM mRNA 2
Fig
DNA 1
Synthesis of
mRNA in the
nucleus
mRNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
mRNA 2
Movement of
mRNA into cytoplasm
via nuclear pore
Ribosome
Figure 5.26 DNA → RNA → protein 3
Synthesis
of protein
Amino
acids
Polypeptide

36. The Structure of Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are polymers called polynucleotides
Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called nucleotides
Each nucleotide consists of:
Nitrogenous base
A sugar
Phosphate group
Nitrogenous
base
Phosphate
group
Sugar
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37. (c) Nucleoside components: nitrogenous bases
Fig. 5-27c-1
Nitrogenous bases
Pyrimidines
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T, in DNA)
Uracil (U, in RNA)
Purines
Figure 5.27 Components of nucleic acids
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
(c) Nucleoside components: nitrogenous bases

38. Nucleotide Monomers There are two families of nitrogenous bases:
Pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine, and uracil) have a single six-membered ring
Purines (adenine and guanine) have a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring
In DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose; in RNA, the sugar is ribose
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39. Nucleotide Polymers
Nucleotide polymers are linked together to build a polynucleotide
These links create a backbone of sugar-phosphate units with nitrogenous bases as appendages (inside)
video: DNA structure
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40. The DNA Double Helix
A DNA molecule has two polynucleotides spiraling around forming a double helix
In the DNA double helix, the two backbones run in opposite 5 → 3 directions from each other, an arrangement referred to as antiparallel
The nitrogenous bases in DNA pair up and form hydrogen bonds: adenine (A) always with thymine (T), and guanine (G) always with cytosine (C)
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41. 5' end 3' end Sugar-phosphate backbones Base pair (joined by
Fig. 5-28
5' end
3' end
Sugar-phosphate
backbones
Base pair (joined by
hydrogen bonding)
Old strands
Nucleotide
about to be
added to a
new strand
3' end
Figure 5.28 The DNA double helix and its replication
5' end
New
strands
5' end
3' end
5' end
3' end

42. Fig. 5-UN2a

43. Fig. 5-UN2b

44. Fig. 5-UN9