1. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Project Management: A Managerial Approach Chapter 9 – Resource Allocation

2. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Overview Critical Path Crashing Resource Leveling Resource Constrained Schedules Multiproject Resource Management Critical Chain

3. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Critical Path Method - Crashing a Project CPM includes a way of relating the project schedule to the level of physical resources allocated to the project This allows the project manager to trade time for cost, or vice versa In CPM, two activity times and two costs are specified, if appropriate for each activity Chapter 9-1

4. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Critical Path Method - Crashing a Project The first time/cost combination is called normal, and the second set is referred to as crash Normal times are “normal” in the same sense as the ‘m’ time estimate of the three times used in PERT Crash times result from an attempt to expedite the activity by the application of additional resources Chapter 9-2

5. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Critical Path Method - Crashing a Project Careful planning is critical when attempting to expedite (crash) a project Expediting tends to create problems; and the solution to one problem often creates several more problems that require solutions Some organizations have more than one level of crashing Chapter 9-3

6. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Crashing – Sample Network 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 3 6 10 11 8 5 6 0 Critical Path = 3 + 6 + 8 + 6 = 23 Time Units

7. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Crashing – An Example ActivityNormal Time Normal Cost Crash Time Crash Cost Slope Max Crsh Tm 1-23$502$70 2-36$804$160 2-410$609$90 2-511$507$150 3-68$1006$160 5-75$404$70 6-76$706

8. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Crashing – Sample Network 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 $50 $80 $100 $70 “Normal” Project Total Cost = $50 + $80 + $100 + $70 + $60 + $50 + $40 = $450

9. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Crashing – An Example ActivityNormal Time Normal Cost Crash Time Crash Cost Slope Max Crsh Tm 1-23$502$70201 2-36$804$160402 2-410$609$90301 2-511$507$150254 3-68$1006$160302 5-75$404$70301 6-76$706 00

10. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Crashing – Sample Network 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 $50 $80 $100 $70 “Normal” Project Total Cost = $50 + $80 + $100 + $70 + $60 + $50 + $40 = $450 Critical Path = 23 Days 3 6 8 6 $60 $50 $40 10 11 5

11. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Crashing – Sample Network 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 $70 $80 $160 $70 “Crashed” Project Total Cost = $70+ $80 + $160 + $70 + $60 + $50 + $40 = $530 Critical Path = 23 Days 2 6 6 6 $60 $50 $40 10 11 5 “Crashed”Path = 20 Days

12. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Fast-Tracking Another way to expedite a project is known as “fast-tracking” It refers to overlapping the design and build phases of a project Because design is usually completed before construction starts, overlapping the two activities will result in shortening the project duration Chapter 9-4

13. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. The Resource Allocation Problem A shortcoming of most scheduling procedures is that they do not address the issues of resource utilization and availability Scheduling procedures tend to focus on time rather than physical resources Time itself is always a critical resource in project management, one that is unique because it can neither be inventoried nor renewed Chapter 9-5

14. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. The Resource Allocation Problem Schedules should be evaluated not merely in terms of meeting project milestones, but also in terms of the timing and use of scarce resources A fundamental measure of the project manager’s success in project management is the skill with which the trade-offs among performance, time, and cost are managed Chapter 9-6

15. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. The Resource Allocation Problem The extreme points of the relationship between time use and resource use are these: –Time Limited: The project must be finished by a certain time, using as few resources as possible. But it is time, not resource usage, that is critical –Resource Limited:The project must be finished as soon as possible, but without exceeding some specific level of resource usage or some general resource constraint Chapter 9-7

16. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. The Resource Allocation Problem If all three variables - time, cost, specifications - are fixed, the system is “overdetermined” In this case, the project manager has lost all flexibility to perform the trade-offs that are so necessary to the successful completion of projects A system-constrained task requires a fixed amount of time and known quantities of resources Chapter 9-8

17. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Resource Loading Resource loading describes the amounts of individual resources an existing schedule requires during specific time periods The loads (requirements) of each resource type are listed as a function of time period Resource loading gives a general understanding of the demands a project or set of projects will make on a firm’s resources Chapter 9-9

18. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Resource Loading An excellent guide for early, rough project planning Because the project action plan is the source of information on activity precedences, durations, and resources requirements, it is the primary input for both the project schedule and its budget The action plan links the schedule directly to specific demands for resources Chapter 9-10

19. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Resource Loading The PERT/CPM network technique can be modified to generate time-phased resource requirements The project manager must be aware of the ebbs and flows of usage for each input resource throughout the life of the project It is the project manager’s responsibility to ensure that the required resources, in the required amounts, are available when and where they are needed Chapter 9-11

20. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Resource Leveling Resource leveling aims to minimize the period-by- period variations in resource loading by shifting tasks within their slack allowances The purpose is to create a smoother distribution of resource usage Several advantages include: –Less hands-on management is required –May be able to use a “just-in-time” inventory policy Chapter 9-12

21. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Resource Leveling When resources are leveled, the associated costs also tend to be leveled The project manager must be aware of the cash flows associated with the project and of the means of shifting them in ways that are useful to the parent firm Resource leveling is a procedure that can be used for almost all projects, whether or not resources are constrained Chapter 9-13

22. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Resource Leveling - Example

23. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Constrained Resource Scheduling There are two fundamental approaches to constrained allocation problems: –Heuristic Methods –Optimization Models Heuristic approaches employ rules of thumb that have been found to work reasonably well in similar situations Optimization approaches seek the best solutions but are far more limited in their ability to handle complex situations and large problems Chapter 9-14

24. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Heuristic Methods Heuristic approaches to constrained resource scheduling problems are in wide, general use for a number of reasons: –1. They are the only feasible methods of attacking the large, nonlinear, complex problems that tend to occur in the real world of project management –2. While the schedules that heuristics generate may not be optimal, they are usually quite good- certainly good enough for most purposes Chapter 9-15

25. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Heuristic Methods Most heuristic solution methods start with the PERT/CPM schedule and analyze resource usage period by period, resource by resource In a period when the available supply of a resource is exceeded, the heuristic examines the tasks in that period and allocates the scarce resource to them sequentially, according to some priority rule Technological necessities always take precedence Chapter 9-16

26. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Heuristic Methods Common priority rules: –As soon as possible –As late as possible –Shortest task first –Most resources first –Minimum slack first –Most critical followers –Most successors –Arbitrary Chapter 9-17

27. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Heuristic Methods Most priority rules are simple adaptations of the heuristics used for the traditional “job shop scheduling” problem of production/operations management Most heuristics use a combination of rules: a primary rule, and a secondary rule to break ties As the scheduling heuristic operates, one of two events will result: –The routine runs out of activities before it runs out of resources –The routine runs out of resources before all activities have been scheduled Chapter 9-18

28. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Optimizing Methods The methods to find an optimal solution to the constrained resource scheduling problem fall into two categories: –Mathematical programming –Enumeration Mathematical programming can be thought of as liner programming (LP) for the most part Chapter 9-19

29. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Optimizing Methods Linear programming is usually not feasible for reasonably large projects where there may be a dozen resources and thousands of activities In the late 1960s and early 1970s, limited enumeration techniques were applied to the constrained resource problem Tree search, and branch and bound methods were devised to handle up to five resources and 200 activities Chapter 9-20

30. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Multiproject Scheduling and Resource Allocation The most common approach to scheduling and allocating resources to multiple projects is to treat the several projects as if they were each elements of a single large project Another way of attacking the problem is to consider all projects as completely independent To describe such a system properly, standards are needed by which to measure scheduling effectiveness Chapter 9-21

31. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Multiproject Scheduling and Resource Allocation Three important parameters affected by project scheduling are: –Schedule slippage –Resource utilization –In-process inventory The organization (or the project manager) must select the criterion most appropriate for its situation Chapter 9-22

32. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Multiproject Scheduling and Resource Allocation Schedule slippage, often considered the most important of the criteria, is the time past a project’s due date or delivery date when the project is completed Resource utilization is of particular concern to industrial firms because of the high cost of making resources available The amount of in-process inventory concerns the amount of work waiting to be processed because there is a shortage of some resource Chapter 9-23

33. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Multiproject Scheduling and Resource Allocation All criteria cannot be optimized at the same time As usual, the project manager will have to make trade-offs among the criteria A firm must decide which criterion to evaluate its various scheduling and resource allocation options Chapter 9-24

34. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Mathematical Programming Mathematical programming can be used to obtain solutions to certain types of multiproject scheduling problems These procedures determine when an activity should be scheduled, given resource constraints Mathematical programming, however, is rarely used in project management to handle the multiproject problem (mostly, heuristics are used) Chapter 9-25

35. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Mathematical Programming The three most common objectives of mathematical programming are: –1. Minimum total throughput time (time in the shop) for all projects –2. Minimum total completion time for all projects –3. Minimum total lateness or lateness penalty for all projects These objectives are most appropriate for ‘job shop’ type solutions to resource constraints Chapter 9-26

36. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Heuristic Techniques There are scores of different heuristic-based procedures in existence They represent rather simple extensions of well- known approaches to job-shop scheduling: –Resource Scheduling Method –Minimum late finish time –Greatest resource demand –Greatest resource utilization –Most possible jobs Chapter 9-27

37. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Critical Chain Eliyahu M. Goldratt’s “Theory of Constraints” Traditional Project Estimation Techniques Ineffective –Time and Resource Constraints Usually Violated –PMs Rely on “Padding” of Schedules and Budgets –Unknown Nature of Event Interaction Fear, Uncertainty, Doubt Psychological, Organizational, and Physical

38. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Critical Chain - Approach Bottleneck Management –Activities with Several Predecessors and/or Successors –Add “Time Buffers” at Bottleneck Events “Safety Stock” Equivalent in Manufacturing Just-in-Time with “Just-in-Case” Statistically-derived “Path Buffers” –Establish the Critical Chain for Scarce Resources –Prioritization of Resources in Chain Events Communication of “Walt” Needs is Critical to Success

39. © 2006 John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted in section 117 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without express permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Request for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The Publisher assumes no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information herein.