HAPTER 12 The Production Cycle.

HAPTER 12 The Production Cycle

INTRODUCTION Questions to be addressed in this chapter include:
What are the basic business activities and data processing operations that are performed in the production cycle? What decisions need to be made in the production cycle, and what information is needed to make these decisions? How can the company’s cost accounting system help in achieving the entity’s objectives? What are the major threats in the production cycle and the controls that can mitigate those threats?

INTRODUCTION The production cycle is a recurring set of business activities and related data processing operations associated with the manufacture of products.

INTRODUCTION Information flows to the production cycle from other cycles, e.g.: The revenue cycle provides information on customer orders and sales forecasts for use in planning production and inventory levels. The expenditure cycle provides information about raw materials acquisitions and overhead costs. The human resources/payroll cycle provides information about labor costs and availability.

INTRODUCTION Information also flows from the expenditure cycle:
The revenue cycle receives information from the production cycle about finished goods available for sale. The expenditure cycle receives information about raw materials needs. The human resources/payroll cycle receives information about labor needs. The general ledger and reporting system receives information about cost of goods manufactured.

INTRODUCTION Decisions that must be made in the production cycle include: What mix of products should be produced? How should products be priced? How should resources be allocated? How should costs be managed and performance evaluated? These decisions require cost data well beyond that required for external financial statements.

INTRODUCTION We’ll be looking at how the three basic AIS functions are carried out in the production cycle, i.e.: How do we capture and process data? How do we store and organize the data for decisions? How do we provide controls to safeguard resources, including data?

PRODUCTION CYCLE ACTIVITIES
The four basic activities in the production cycle are: Product design Planning and scheduling Production operations Cost accounting Accountants are primarily involved in the fourth activity (cost accounting) but must understand the other processes well enough to design an AIS that provides needed information and supports these activities.

PRODUCT DESIGN The objective of product design is to design a product that strikes the optimal balance of: Meeting customer requirements for quality, durability, and functionality; and Minimizing production costs. Simulation software can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of product design.

PRODUCT DESIGN Key documents and forms in product design:
Bill of Materials: Lists the components that are required to build each product, including part numbers, descriptions,and quantity. Operations List: Lists the sequence of steps required to produce each product, including the equipment needed and the amount of time required.

PRODUCT DESIGN Role of the accountant in product design:
Participate in the design, because 65−80% of product cost is determined at this stage. Add value by: Designing an AIS that measures and collects the needed data. Information about current component usage. Information about machine set-up and materials-handling costs. Data on repair and warranty costs to aid in future modification and design.

PRODUCT DESIGN Role of the accountant in product design:
Participate in the design, because 65−80% of product cost is determined at this stage. Add value by: Designing an AIS that measures and collects the needed data. Helping the design team use that data to improve profitability. Compare current component usage with projected usage in alternate designs. Compare current set-up and handling costs to projected costs in alternate designs. Provide info on how design trade-offs affect total production cost and profitability.

PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
The objective of the planning and scheduling activity is to develop a production plan that is efficient enough to meet existing orders and anticipated shorter-term demand while minimizing inventories of both raw materials and finished goods.

There are two common approaches to production planning: Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP-II) Lean Manufacturing

MRP-II is an extension of MRP inventory control systems: Seeks to balance existing production capacity and raw materials needs to meet forecasted sales demands. Often referred to as push manufacturing.

There are two common approaches to production planning: Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP-II) Lean Manufacturing

Lean manufacturing is an extension of the principles of just-in-time inventory systems: Seeks to minimize or eliminate inventories of raw materials, work in process, and finished goods. Theoretically, produces only in response to customer orders, but in reality, there are short-run production plans. Often referred to as pull manufacturing.

Comparison of the two systems: Both plan production in advance. They differ in the length of the planning horizon. MRP-II develops plans for up to 12 months ahead. Lean manufacturing uses shorter planning horizons. Consequently: MRP-II is more appropriate for products with predictable demand and a long life cycle. Lean manufacturing more appropriate for products with unpredictable demand, short life cycles, and frequent markdowns of excess inventory.

Key documents and forms: Master production schedule Specifies how much of each product is to be produced during the period and when. Uses information about customer orders, sales forecasts, and finished goods inventory levels to determine production levels. Although plans can be modified, production plans must be frozen a few weeks in advance to provide time to procure needed materials and labor. Scheduling becomes significantly more complex as the number of factories increases. Raw materials needs are determined by exploding the bill of materials to determine amount needed for current production. These amounts are compared to available levels to determine amounts to be purchased.

Key documents and forms: Master production schedule Production order Authorizes production of a specified quantity of a product. It lists: Operations to be performed Quantity to be produced Location for delivery Also collects data about these activities,

Key documents and forms: Master production schedule Production order Materials requisition Authorizes movement of the needed materials from the storeroom to the factory floor. This document indicates: Production order number Date of issue Part numbers and quantities of raw materials needed (based on data in bill of materials)

Key documents and forms: Master production schedule Production order Materials requisition Move ticket Documents the transfer of parts and materials throughout the factory.

How can information technology help? Improve the efficiency of material-handling activities by using: Bar coding of materials to improve speed and accuracy, RFID tags can eliminate human intervention in the scanning process, Up to 40 times faster than using bar-code scanners. Not impeded by dirt. Not limited to reading only those items in line of sight. Much easier to locate needed products and broadcast their location to forklift operators or other warehouse workers.

Role of the accountant: Ensure the AIS collects and reports costs in a manner consistent with the company’s production planning techniques.

PRODUCTION OPERATIONS
Production operations vary greatly across companies, depending on the type of product and the degree of automation. The use of various forms of IT, such as robots and computer-controlled machinery is called computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). Can significantly reduce production costs. Accountants aren’t experts on CIM, but they must understand how it affects the AIS. One effect is a shift from mass production to custom-order manufacturing and the need to accumulate costs accordingly.

In a lean manufacturing environment, a customer order triggers several actions: System first checks inventory on hand for sufficiency. Calculates labor needs and determines whether overtime or temporary help will be needed. Based on bill of materials, determines what components need to be ordered. Necessary purchase orders are sent via EDI. The master production schedule is adjusted to include the new order.

Sharing information across cycles helps companies be more efficient by timing purchases to meet the actual demand. Although the nature of production processes and the extent of CIM vary, all companies need data on: Raw materials used Labor hours expended Machine operations performed Other manufacturing overhead costs incurred

COST ACCOUNTING The objectives of cost accounting are:
To provide information for planning, controlling, and evaluating the performance of production operations; To provide accurate cost data about products for use in pricing and product mix decisions; and To collect and process information used to calculate inventory and COGS values for the financial statements.

To provide information for planning, controlling, and evaluating the performance of production operations; To provide accurate cost data about products for use in pricing and product mix decisions; and To collect and process information used to calculate inventory and COGS values for the financial statements. To accomplish the first objective, the AIS must collect real-time data on the performance of production activities so management can make timely decisions. RFID technology can be especially helpful, e.g.: Broadcasting repair needs proactively. Helping in the location of particular items.

To accomplish the second and third objectives, the AIS must collect costs by various categories and assign them to specific products and organizational units. Requires careful coding of cost data during collection because costs may be allocated in different ways for different reporting purposes. The objectives of cost accounting are: To provide information for planning, controlling, and evaluating the performance of production operations; To provide accurate cost data about products for use in pricing and product mix decisions; and To collect and process information used to calculate inventory and COGS values for the financial statements.

COST ACCOUNTING Types of cost accounting systems: Job order costing
Assigns costs to a specific production batch or job. Used when the product or service consists of discretely identifiable items. Example: Houses.

COST ACCOUNTING Types of cost accounting systems: Job order costing
Process costing Assigns costs to each process or work center in the production cycle. Calculates the average cost for all units produced. Used when similar goods or services are produced in mass quantities and discrete units can’t be easily identified. Example: Paint.

COST ACCOUNTING Accounting for fixed assets:
The AIS must collect and process information about the property, plant, and equipment used in the production cycle. These assets represent a significant portion of total assets for many companies and need to be monitored as an investment.

COST ACCOUNTING The following information should be maintained about each fixed asset: ID number Serial number Location Cost Acquisition date Vendor info Expected life Expected salvage value Depreciation method Accumulated depreciation Improvements Maintenance performed

COST ACCOUNTING The purchase of fixed assets follows the same processes as other purchases in the expenditure cycle (order  receive  pay). But the amounts involved necessitate some modification to the process: Competitive bidding Machinery and equipment purchases almost always involve a formal request for competitive bids.

COST ACCOUNTING The purchase of fixed assets follows the same processes as other purchases in the expenditure cycle (order  receive  pay). But the amounts involved necessitate some modification to the process: Competitive bidding Number of people involved More people are likely to be involved in reviewing bids for fixed assets.

COST ACCOUNTING The purchase of fixed assets follows the same processes as other purchases in the expenditure cycle (order  receive  pay). But the amounts involved necessitate some modification to the process: Competitive bidding Number of people involved Payment Purchases of fixed assets are often paid for in installments, including interest.

COST ACCOUNTING The purchase of fixed assets follows the same processes as other purchases in the expenditure cycle (order  receive  pay). But the amounts involved necessitate some modification to the process: Competitive bidding Number of people involved Payment Controls The cost of fixed assets justifies more elaborate controls to safeguard them, including: Maintenance of detailed records of each item. RFID tags to: Monitor location Facilitate preventive maintenance

COST ACCOUNTING The purchase of fixed assets follows the same processes as other purchases in the expenditure cycle (order  receive  pay). But the amounts involved necessitate some modification to the process: Competitive bidding Number of people involved Payment Controls Disposal It’s critical to formally approve and accurately record the sale or disposal of fixed assets.

COST ACCOUNTING A typical AIS would look something like the following:
Product design Engineering specifications result in new records for both the bill of materials and the operations list file. To create these lists, engineering accesses both files to view designs of similar products. They also access the general ledger and inventory files for info about alternate designs.

Product design Production planning The sales department enters sales forecasts and customer special order information. Production planning uses that information and data on current inventory levels to develop a master production schedule. New records are added to the production order file to authorize the production of goods.

Product design Production planning Cost accounting New records are added to the work-in-process file to accumulate cost data.

Product design Production planning Cost accounting Production operations The list of operations to be performed is displayed at workstations. Instructions are also sent to the CIM interface to guide operation of machinery and robots. Materials requisitions are sent to inventory stores to authorize release of raw materials to production.

COST ACCOUNTING Such a system can be used for a job-order or process costing system. Both require that data be accumulated about: Raw materials Direct labor Machinery and equipment usage Manufacturing overhead The choice of method: Does not affect how data are collected Does affect how costs are assigned to products

COST ACCOUNTING Raw material usage data:
When production is initiated, the issuance of a materials requisition triggers a debit (increase) to work in process and a credit (decrease) to raw materials inventory. Work in process is credited and raw materials are debited for any amounts returned to inventory. Many raw materials are bar coded so that usage data is collected by scanning. RFID tags improve the efficiency of tracking material usage. Usage may be entered online for materials such as liquids that are not conducive to tagging.

COST ACCOUNTING Direct labor costs:
Historically, job time tickets were used to record the time a worker spent on each job task. Currently, workers may: Enter the data on online terminals. Use coded ID badges, which are run through a badge reader at the beginning and end of each job.

COST ACCOUNTING Machinery and equipment usage:
Machinery costs make up an ever-increasing proportion of production costs. Data about machinery and equipment are collected at each production step, often with data about labor costs. Until recently, data was collected by wiring the factory so all equipment was linked to the computer system. Limits the ability to rearrange the shop floor. 3-D simulations can be used to assess the impact of altering floor layout.

COST ACCOUNTING Manufacturing overhead costs:
Includes costs that can’t be easily traced to jobs or processes, such as utilities, depreciation, supervisory salaries. Most of these costs are collected in the expenditure cycle. An exception is supervisory salaries, which are collected in the HRM/payroll cycle.

COST ACCOUNTING Accountants help control overhead by assessing how product mix changes will affect overhead costs. They should also identify the factors that drive the changes in these costs. This information can be used to realign processes and layout. Accurate and complete information about production cycle activities are required to perform these analyses.

CONTROL: OBJECTIVES, THREATS, AND PROCEDURES
In the production cycle (or any cycle), a well-designed AIS should provide adequate controls to ensure that the following objectives are met: All transactions are properly authorized. All recorded transactions are valid. All valid and authorized transactions are recorded. All transactions are recorded accurately. Assets are safeguarded from loss or theft. Business activities are performed efficiently and effectively. The company is in compliance with all applicable laws and regulations. All disclosures are full and fair.

There are several actions a company can take with respect to any cycle to reduce threats of errors or irregularities. These include: Using simple, easy-to-complete documents with clear instructions (enhances accuracy and reliability). Using appropriate application controls, such as validity checks and field checks (enhances accuracy and reliability). Providing space on forms to record who completed and who reviewed the form (encourages proper authorizations and accountability).

Pre-numbering documents (encourages recording of valid and only valid transactions). Restricting access to blank documents (reduces risk of unauthorized transaction). Using RFID tags when feasible to improve data entry accuracy. In the following sections, we’ll discuss the threats that may arise in the four major steps of the production cycle, as well as general threats, EDI-related threats, and threats related to purchases of services.

THREATS IN PRODUCT DESIGN
The major threats in the product design process is: THREAT 1: Poor product design You can click on the threat above to get more information on: The types of problems posed by each threat. The controls that can mitigate the threat.

THREATS IN PRODUCT DESIGN
THREAT NO. 1—Poor product design Why is this a problem? Higher materials purchasing and carrying costs. Costs for inefficient production. Higher repair and warranty costs. Controls: Accurate data about the relationship between components and finished goods. Analysis of warranty and repair costs to identify primary causes of product failure to be used in re-designing product. Return to Threat Menu Go to Next Threat

THREATS IN PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
Threats in the planning and scheduling process include: THREAT 2: Over- or under-production THREAT 3: Suboptimal investment in fixed assets You can click on any of the threats above to get more information on: The types of problems posed by each threat The controls that can mitigate the threats.

THREAT NO. 2—Over- or under-production Why is this a problem? Over-production may result in: Excess goods for short-run demand and potential cash flow problems. Obsolete inventory. Under-production may result in: Lost sales. Customer dissatisfaction.

Controls: More accurate production planning, including accurate and current: Sales forecasts Inventory data Investments in production planning. Regular collection of data on production performance to adjust production schedule. Proper authorization of production orders. Restriction of access to production scheduling program. Validity checks on production orders. Return to Threat Menu Go to Next Threat

THREAT NO. 3—Suboptimal investment in fixed assets Why is this a problem? Over-investment causes excess costs. Under-investment impairs productivity. Controls: Proper authorization of fixed asset transactions: Larger purchases should be reviewed by a senior executive or executive committee. Smaller purchases (<$10,000) can be handled with departmental budgets, with managers being held responsible for department return.

Competitive bids should be sought via requests for proposals (RFPs). The capital investment committee should review and select the winning bid. Once a supplier is selected, acquisition may be handled through the expenditure cycle process. Return to Threat Menu Go to Next Threat

THREATS IN PRODUCTION OPERATIONS
Threats in the production operations process include: THREAT 4: Theft of inventories and fixed assets THREAT 5: Disruption of operations You can click on any of the threats above to get more information on: The types of problems posed by each threat. The controls that can mitigate the threats.

THREAT NO. 4—Theft of inventories and fixed assets Why is this a problem? Loss of assets. Misstated financial data. Potential underproduction of inventory. Controls: Physical access to inventory should be restricted. All internal movement of inventory should be documented.

Materials requisitions should be used to authorize release of raw materials. Should be signed by both inventory control clerk and production employee to establish accountability. Requests in excess of the bill of materials should be documented and have supervisory authorization. RFID tags and bar codes can be used to track inventory through production.

Proper segregation of duties should be enforced: Inventory stores has custody of raw materials and finished goods. Factory supervisors are responsible for work in process. Authorization of production orders, materials requisitions, and move tickets, should be done by production planners or the information system. Logical and physical access controls should be enforced for production records. An independent party should count inventory and investigate discrepancies. Fixed assets must be identified and recorded.

Managers should be held accountable for assets under their control. Fixed assets should be physically secured. Disposal of assets should be authorized and documented. Periodic reports of fixed asset transactions should be reviewed by the controller. Adequate insurance should be maintained. Return to Threat Menu Go to Next Threat

THREAT NO. 5—Disruption of operations Why is this a problem? Disasters can disrupt functioning and destroy assets Controls: Backup power sources, such as generators and uninterruptible power supplies. Investigate disaster preparedness of key suppliers and identify alternative sources for critical components. Return to Threat Menu Go to Next Threat

THREATS IN COST ACCOUNTING
Threats in the cost accounting process include: THREAT 6: Inaccurate recording and processing of production activity data You can click on the threat above to get more information on: The types of problems posed by the threat. The controls that can mitigate the threat.

THREAT 6—Inaccurate recording and processing of production activity data Why is this a problem? Diminishes effectiveness of production scheduling. Undermines management’s ability to monitor and control operations. Controls: Automate data collection with RFID technology, bar code scanners, and badge readers to ensure accurate data entry.

Use online terminals for data entry. Restrict access with passwords, user IDs, and access control matrices to prevent unauthorized changes to data. Use check digits, closed-loop verification, and validity checks. Do periodic physical counts of inventory and compare to records. Do periodic inspections and counts of fixed assets. Return to Threat Menu Go to Next Threat

You can click on any of the threats below to get more information on:
The types of problems posed by each threat. The controls that can mitigate the threats. GENERAL THREATS Two general objectives pertain to activities in every cycle: Accurate data should be available when needed. Activities should be performed efficiently and effectively. Threats in the process of ordering goods include: THREAT 7: Loss, alteration, or unauthorized disclosure of data THREAT 8: Poor performance

GENERAL THREATS THREAT NO. 7: Loss, alteration, or unauthorized disclosure of data Why is this a problem? Loss or alteration of data could cause: Errors in external or internal reporting. Unauthorized disclosure of confidential information can cause: Unfair competition Loss of business

GENERAL THREATS Controls:
All data files and key master files should be backed up regularly. At least one backup on site and one offsite. All disks and tapes should have external and internal file labels to reduce chance of accidentally erasing important data. Promptly, remove all access rights of employees who quit or are fired

GENERAL THREATS Access controls should be utilized:
User IDs and passwords. Compatibility matrices. Controls for individual terminals (e.g., so the receiving dock can’t enter a sales order). Logs of all activities, particularly those requiring specific authorizations, should be maintained. Default settings on ERP systems usually allow users far too much access to data, so these systems must be modified to enforce proper segregation of duties.

GENERAL THREATS Sensitive data should be encrypted in storage and in transmission. Parity checks, acknowledgment messages, and control totals should be used to ensure transmission accuracy. Return to Threat Menu Go to Next Threat

GENERAL THREATS THREAT NO. 8—Poor performance Why is this a problem?
Quality control problems increase expenses and reduce future sales. Controls: Prepare and review performance reports. Return to Threat Menu Go to Next Threat

PRODUCTION CYCLE INFORMATION NEEDS
In a manufacturing environment, the focus must be on total quality management. Managers need info on: Defect rates Breakdown frequency Percent of finished goods needing rework Percent of defects discovered by customers

In traditional systems, this type of data was not well linked with financial data, and cost accounting systems were separate from production operations information systems. However, both financial and operating information are needed to manage and evaluate these activities.

Two major criticisms have been directed at traditional cost accounting systems: Overhead costs are inappropriately allocated to products. Reports do not accurately reflect effects of factory automation.

CRITICISM 1: INAPPROPRIATE ALLOCATION OF OVERHEAD COSTS
Traditional cost accounting systems use volume-driven bases such as direct labor hours or machine hours to apply overhead. However, overhead does not vary with production volume. EXAMPLE: Purchasing costs vary with the number of purchase orders processed.

Allocating overhead based on output volume: Overstates the costs of products manufactured in large quantities. Understates the costs of products manufactured in small batches. Also, allocating overhead based on direct labor input can distort costs.

Example of two products: Product one uses: $5 of materials 1 hour of labor 5 minutes of machine time Product two uses: 42 hours of machine time on very expensive equipment

Example of two products: Product one uses: $5 of materials 1 hour of labor 5 minutes of machine time Product two uses: 42 hours of machine time on very expensive equipment Under a traditional cost accounting system, both products will appear to have the same cost.

Solution to criticism 1: Activity Based Costing (ABC) ABC can refine and improve cost allocations under either job-order or process costing systems. ABC traces costs to the activities that create them and allocates them accordingly. ABC aims to link costs to corporate strategy.

Corporate strategy results in decisions about what goods and services to produce. These activities incur costs. So corporate strategy determines costs. By measuring the costs of the basic activities, ABC provides information to management for evaluating the consequences of their decisions.

ABC vs. traditional cost systems: There are three significant differences between ABC and traditional approaches. Tracing of overhead costs Number of cost pools Identification of cost drivers

ABC vs. traditional cost systems: There are three significant differences between ABC and traditional cost accounting approaches. Tracing of overhead costs Number of cost pools Identification of cost drivers

ABC directly traces a larger proportion of overhead costs to products. This tracing is made possible by advances in IT.

ABC uses a greater number of cost pools to accumulate indirect costs (manufacturing overhead). Most systems lump all overhead together, but ABC distinguishes three categories: Batch-related overhead EXAMPLES: Setup, inspection, and material handling costs. Accumulated for a batch and allocated to the products in that batch. Consequently, costs per product will be less when products are made in larger quantities.

ABC uses a greater number of cost pools to accumulate indirect costs (manufacturing overhead). Most systems lump all overhead together, but ABC distinguishes three categories: Batch-related overhead Product-related overhead Examples: R&D, environmental regulations, and purchasing costs. These costs are related to the diversity of the company’s product line. ABC attempts to link these costs to the products that generate them. For example, purchasing costs might be allocated to products based on the number of purchase orders generated for each product.

ABC uses a greater number of cost pools to accumulate indirect costs (manufacturing overhead). Most systems lump all overhead together, but ABC distinguishes three categories: Batch-related overhead Product-related overhead Company-wide overhead EXAMPLE: Rent or depreciation. These costs are applied to all products and allocated according to departmental or plant rates.

Benefits of ABC systems ABC systems are more costly and complex. But proponents argue two important benefits: More accurate cost data result in better product mix and pricing decisions. More detailed cost data improve management’s ability to control and manage total costs.

Benefits of ABC systems ABC systems are more costly and complex. But proponents argue two important benefits: More accurate cost data result in better product mix and pricing decisions More detailed cost data improve management’s ability to control and manage total costs.

Better decisions ABC avoids problems of applying too much or too little overhead to products and consequently results in better price decisions. ABC uses the data collected to improve product design. ABC provides management with the information about the costs associated with specific activities, resulting in better analysis and decisions.

Benefits of ABC systems ABC systems are more costly and complex. But proponents argue two important benefits: More accurate cost data result in better product mix and pricing decisions. More detailed cost data improve management’s ability to control and manage total costs.

Improved cost management ABC measures the results of managerial actions on overall profitability. ABC measures both the amount spent to acquire resources and the amount spent to consume them. ABC measures unused capacity: Cost of activity capability = Cost of activity used + Cost of unused capacity

EXAMPLE: A publishing company has five employees who operate printing presses. The employees each have annual salaries of $25,000 for a total salary cost of $125,000. Each employee should be able to print about 10,000 books per year. The total capacity, therefore is 50,000 books. The salary cost per book would be $125,000 / 50,000 books = $2.50 per book. During the most recent year, the presses produced 47,000 books.

EXAMPLE: A publishing company has five employees who operate printing presses. The employees each have annual salaries of $25,000 for a total salary cost of $125,000. Each employee should be able to print about 10,000 books per year. The total capacity, therefore is 50,000 books. The salary cost per book would be $125,000 / 50,000 books = $2.50 per book. During the most recent year, the presses produced 47,000 books. The cost of the activity capability is the total book capacity for the year of 50,000 books times the salary cost per book of $2.50. 50,000 books x $2.50 = $125,000.

EXAMPLE: A publishing company has five employees who operate printing presses. The employees each have annual salaries of $25,000 for a total salary cost of $125,000. Each employee should be able to print about 10,000 books per year. The total capacity, therefore is 50,000 books. The salary cost per book would be $125,000 / 50,000 books = $2.50 per book. During the most recent year, the presses produced 47,000 books. The cost of the activity used is the number of books actually produced times the salary cost per book of $2.50. 47,000 books x $2.50 = $117,500.

The unused capacity is the difference between the activity capability ($125,000) and the cost of the activity used ($117,500). $125,000 - $117,500 = $7,500 unused capacity. Alternately, unused capacity can be calculated as the cost per book of $2.50 times the difference between the books that could be produced and the books that were actually produced. $2.50 x (50,000 possible books – 47,000 actual books) = $7,500 unused capacity. EXAMPLE: A publishing company has five employees who operate printing presses. The employees each have annual salaries of $25,000 for a total salary cost of $125,000. Each employee should be able to print about 10,000 books per year. The total capacity, therefore is 50,000 books. The salary cost per book would be $125,000 / 50,000 books = $2.50 per book. During the most recent year, the presses produced 47,000 books.

Management may be able to improve profitability by: Applying the unused capacity to other revenue-generating activities; or Eliminating the unused capacity.

Two major criticisms have been directed at traditional cost accounting systems: Overhead costs are inappropriately allocated to products. Reports do not accurately reflect effects of factory automation.

CRITICISM 2: REPORTS DO NOT ACCURATELY REFLECT EFFECTS OF AUTOMATION
When an organization transitions from a traditional production system to a lean manufacturing system, inventory levels are depleted. Consequently, almost all production costs of the year are expensed that year. Although the effect is temporary, managers will be concerned if their performance evaluations are based on the company’s reported financial statements.

Solution to criticism two: Better reports and measures Produce reports based on lean accounting principles. Report for each product all costs incurred to design, produce, sell, deliver, process customer payments, and provide post-sale support for that product. Separate overhead costs from COGS. Identify changes in inventory levels as a separate expense item.

Solution to criticism two: Better reports and measures Produce reports based on lean accounting principles. Develop resources to focus on issues important to production cycle managers. Examples: Useable output produced per time period. Monitoring of product quality.

THROUGHPUT: A MEASURE OF PRODUCTION EFFECTIVENESS
Throughput = Productive Capacity x Productive Processing Time x Yield Productive Capacity = Total Units Produced / Processing Time Can be improved by: Improving machine or labor efficiency. Improving factory layout. Simplifying product design specifications.

Throughput = Productive Capacity x Productive Processing Time x Yield Productive Capacity = Total Units Produced / Processing Time Productive Processing Time = Processing Time / Total Time The opposite of downtime. Can be improved by: Better maintenance to reduce machine downtime. Better scheduling of deliveries to reduce wait time.

Throughput = Productive Capacity x Productive Processing Time x Yield Productive Capacity = Total Units Produced / Processing Time Productive Processing Time = Processing Time / Total Time Yield = Good Units / Total Units Can be improved by: Using better raw materials. Improving worker skills.

Throughput = Productive Capacity x Productive Processing Time x Yield Productive Capacity = Total Units Produced / Processing Time Productive Processing Time = Processing Time / Total Time Yield = Good Units / Total Units EXAMPLE: Manster Co. produced 1,000 bottles of Zithmowash in a 10-hour period. During this period there was a total of 1 hour of machine downtime and waiting time for materials. One hundred of the bottles were defective. PRODUCTIVE CAPACITY = 1,000 bottles / 9 productive hours = bottles / hour. PRODUCTIVE PROCESSING TIME = 9 productive hours / 10 total hours = .90. YIELD = 900 good units / 1,000 total units = .90 THROUGHPUT = x .90 x .90 = 90

QUALITY CONTROL Information about quality control
Quality control costs can be divided into four categories: Prevention costs Costs incurred to reduce product defect rates.

Quality control costs can be divided into four categories: Prevention costs Inspection costs Costs incurred to ensure products meet quality standards.

Quality control costs can be divided into four categories: Prevention costs Inspection costs Internal failure costs Costs of rework and scrap when products are identified as defective prior to sale.

Quality control costs can be divided into four categories: Prevention costs Inspection costs Internal failure costs External failure costs Costs when defective products are sold to customers, e.g., warranty and repair costs, product liability costs, costs of customer dissatisfaction, and damage to reputation.

Quality control costs can be divided into four categories: Prevention costs Inspection costs Internal failure costs External failure costs The objective of quality control is to minimize the sum of these four costs. Some companies have found that the most important management decision involves switching from the traditional "management by exception" philosophy to a "continuous improvement" viewpoint. Continuous improvement focuses on comparing actual performance to the ideal (i.e., perfection).

SUMMARY You’ve learned about the basic business activities and data processing operations that are performed in the production cycle, including: Product design Production planning and scheduling Production operations Cost accounting You’ve learned how IT can improve the efficiency and effectiveness of these processes.

SUMMARY You’ve learned about decisions that need to be made in the production cycle and the information required to make these decisions. You’ve also learned about the major threats that present themselves in the production cycle and the controls that can mitigate those threats. Finally, you’ve learned how the company’s cost accounting system can help in achieving the entity’s objectives.

HAPTER 12 The Production Cycle.

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