1. 2012-13Hoilman Introduction to Comparative Government AP Comparative Government & Politics 6 THEMES AP Comparative Government & Politics 6 THEMES

2. 2012-13Hoilman #1: The Comparative Method Three world approach: –“Advanced” democracies – well- established democratic gov. & high level of economic development; i.e. U.S.& U.K. (“First World”) –Communist & post-communist countries – some limits on individual freedom in order to divide wealth more equally (gov. control); i.e. Russia & China –Less developed countries (LDCs) & newly industrialized countries (NICs) (“Third World”) NICs – rapid economic growth, tendency toward some democratization & political/social stability i.e. Mexico & Iran LDCs – lack significant economic develop. w/ tendency toward authoritarian gov.; i.e. Nigeria

3. #1: Comparative Method continued Formal v. Informal Politics Formal politics is defined by law – the formal positions & organization of gov. (can be neatly outlined in a chart) Informal politics is the way in which citizens organize themselves, define their interests & connect with policy-making activities of government – it may also include the behavior of politicians outside their defined responsibilities Formal v. Informal Politics Formal politics is defined by law – the formal positions & organization of gov. (can be neatly outlined in a chart) Informal politics is the way in which citizens organize themselves, define their interests & connect with policy-making activities of government – it may also include the behavior of politicians outside their defined responsibilities 2012-13Hoilman

4. #1: Comparative Method continued Political Change – the nature of world politics has changed significantly since the fall of U.S.S.R. (1991) b/c the world is no longer dominated by 2 superpowers & their alliances –i.e. democratization, political (in)stability, cleavages within society, state capacity or power, international pressures & globalization, & mobilization of the citizenry Political Change – the nature of world politics has changed significantly since the fall of U.S.S.R. (1991) b/c the world is no longer dominated by 2 superpowers & their alliances –i.e. democratization, political (in)stability, cleavages within society, state capacity or power, international pressures & globalization, & mobilization of the citizenry 2012-13 Hoilman

5. #1: Comparative Method continued Integration of political & economic systems –Capitalism & communism (command) are economic systems, but hard to separate from the political system –Capitalism = less gov. control & citizens and businesses can make free economic decisions (neoliberalism is the movement toward more privatization and less gov. interference); gov. is less centralized in general –Communism = gov. direction regarding quotas, supply production, business opportunities, etc.; gov. is more centralized –Attitudes & behaviors of citizens and how they respond to economic policies & economic decision-making influence the actions of the government, especially regarding economic inefficiencies (i.e. large gap between rich & poor, trade deficits, outside influence of large corporations, etc.) Integration of political & economic systems –Capitalism & communism (command) are economic systems, but hard to separate from the political system –Capitalism = less gov. control & citizens and businesses can make free economic decisions (neoliberalism is the movement toward more privatization and less gov. interference); gov. is less centralized in general –Communism = gov. direction regarding quotas, supply production, business opportunities, etc.; gov. is more centralized –Attitudes & behaviors of citizens and how they respond to economic policies & economic decision-making influence the actions of the government, especially regarding economic inefficiencies (i.e. large gap between rich & poor, trade deficits, outside influence of large corporations, etc.) 2012-13Hoilman

6. #1: Comparative Method continued Empirical v. Normative Approach –Empirical data is based on factual statements & statistics (i.e. infant mortality rate, GDP, GNP, population growth rates, military expenditures, etc.) –Normative issue approach requires value judgments (efficiency of government program(s), lack of public policy regarding an issue, “better” leader, protection of citizens, etc.) – not quantitative, but qualitative Empirical v. Normative Approach –Empirical data is based on factual statements & statistics (i.e. infant mortality rate, GDP, GNP, population growth rates, military expenditures, etc.) –Normative issue approach requires value judgments (efficiency of government program(s), lack of public policy regarding an issue, “better” leader, protection of citizens, etc.) – not quantitative, but qualitative 2012-13Hoilman

7. #1: Comparative Method continued Single country studies – often called “case studies”; few generalizations can be made, but vital for testing theories, formulating concepts, etc. – high internal validity, but low external Small n analysis – a few carefully chosen countries; i.e. Parliament in several countries is studied to design generalizations; most-similar (commonalities) or most-different approach (contrasting) Large N analysis – lots of countries; mainly statistical; i.e. democratic stability as affected by the difference between presidential/executive institutions – higher external validity Single country studies – often called “case studies”; few generalizations can be made, but vital for testing theories, formulating concepts, etc. – high internal validity, but low external Small n analysis – a few carefully chosen countries; i.e. Parliament in several countries is studied to design generalizations; most-similar (commonalities) or most-different approach (contrasting) Large N analysis – lots of countries; mainly statistical; i.e. democratic stability as affected by the difference between presidential/executive institutions – higher external validity 2012-13Hoilman

8. #1: Comparative Method continued Systems theory – looking at an aspect or action of government (i.e. nuclear weapons program & analyzing the reasons for its development (input), the decision- making, the outcome (output), feedback (how it works, what citizens think, etc.) & how it influenced the environment Rational Choice theory – looking at the choices humans make which they believe are in their best interest regarding political or economic participation & drawing conclusions or inferences Middle-level theory - comparisons of specific features of a government in an attempt to draw generalizations, but realizing the event may have unique features as well (i.e. revolutions can be very different) Systems theory – looking at an aspect or action of government (i.e. nuclear weapons program & analyzing the reasons for its development (input), the decision- making, the outcome (output), feedback (how it works, what citizens think, etc.) & how it influenced the environment Rational Choice theory – looking at the choices humans make which they believe are in their best interest regarding political or economic participation & drawing conclusions or inferences Middle-level theory - comparisons of specific features of a government in an attempt to draw generalizations, but realizing the event may have unique features as well (i.e. revolutions can be very different) 2012-13Hoilman

9. 2012-13Hoilman #2: Sovereignty, Authority, & Power Sovereignty: ability to design policies & carry out actions within one’s borders independently from interference either from the inside or the outside; ultimate control over affairs Authority: claim of legitimacy (right to rule; recognized by ruler and the ruled) Power: ability to influence others to act or accept certain actions; those in political office are often those with more power; the government of a country can give / take power Sovereignty: ability to design policies & carry out actions within one’s borders independently from interference either from the inside or the outside; ultimate control over affairs Authority: claim of legitimacy (right to rule; recognized by ruler and the ruled) Power: ability to influence others to act or accept certain actions; those in political office are often those with more power; the government of a country can give / take power

10. #2: Sovereignty, Authority & Power continued Government / Regime –The system of political rule of a state (i.e. authoritarian government, theocracy, constitutional monarchy, democracy, republic, etc.) State –Basic unit of political organization with a permanent population, defined territory, governing institutions, sovereignty over its territory & int’l recognition (i.e. country) –Self-governing political entity (a state is not necessarily a nation and vice versa) Government / Regime –The system of political rule of a state (i.e. authoritarian government, theocracy, constitutional monarchy, democracy, republic, etc.) State –Basic unit of political organization with a permanent population, defined territory, governing institutions, sovereignty over its territory & int’l recognition (i.e. country) –Self-governing political entity (a state is not necessarily a nation and vice versa) 2010-2011Hoilman

11. #2: Sovereignty, Authority & Power continued Institution(s) –Stable, long lasting organization(s) with authority to turn political ideas into policy; i.e. legislature, executive, judiciary, council of advisors, assembly of religious experts Institutions often create agencies to carry out policies or deal with a particular matter Institutions may refer to organizations outside of the formal government (i.e. political parties, interest groups, media, etc.) Institution(s) –Stable, long lasting organization(s) with authority to turn political ideas into policy; i.e. legislature, executive, judiciary, council of advisors, assembly of religious experts Institutions often create agencies to carry out policies or deal with a particular matter Institutions may refer to organizations outside of the formal government (i.e. political parties, interest groups, media, etc.) 2012-13Hoilman

12. 2012-13Hoilman #2: Sovereignty, Authority & Power continued Legitimacy – the right to rule as determined by citizens’ perception of gov.; citizens belief that gov. has rightful power to compel obedience - Max Weber’s 3 sources of political legitimacy: –Traditional legitimacy – based on historical, cultural and/or religious experiences regarding who should rule & how (i.e. monarch, emperor, priestess, Ayatollah Khemeini, etc.) –Charismatic legitimacy - based on the dynamic personality of an individual /small group (i.e. clan chieftain, shaman, guru, prophet, Ayatollah Khoemeini, etc.) Legitimacy – the right to rule as determined by citizens’ perception of gov.; citizens belief that gov. has rightful power to compel obedience - Max Weber’s 3 sources of political legitimacy: –Traditional legitimacy – based on historical, cultural and/or religious experiences regarding who should rule & how (i.e. monarch, emperor, priestess, Ayatollah Khemeini, etc.) –Charismatic legitimacy - based on the dynamic personality of an individual /small group (i.e. clan chieftain, shaman, guru, prophet, Ayatollah Khoemeini, etc.)

13. #2: Sovereignty, Authority & Power continued –Rational-legal legitimacy - based on a system of well-established laws and procedures Rule of law – no person is above the law; all will be held accountable to the laws & will only be punished as set forth by clear, objective, publicly disclosed laws; consistency, predictability, transparency (most modern, developed, stable states rely on this; i.e. U.S., U.K., Mexico) –Rational-legal legitimacy - based on a system of well-established laws and procedures Rule of law – no person is above the law; all will be held accountable to the laws & will only be punished as set forth by clear, objective, publicly disclosed laws; consistency, predictability, transparency (most modern, developed, stable states rely on this; i.e. U.S., U.K., Mexico) 2012-13Hoilman http://blogmyway.org/videos/201 1/06/16/rule-law-report-targets- venezuela/

14. #2: Sovereignty, Authority & Power continued Authority, power & legitimacy influence, and are influenced by, political culture & ideology –Political ideology: set of political values held by individuals regarding the basic goals of government & politics (what the government should or should not do re: foreign policy, military endeavors, taxation, etc.) – fascist, liberal, conservative, fundamentalist –Political culture: broad political beliefs, values, practices, & institutions the government is based upon; shared by large segments of the population (i.e. democracy, liberty, economic equality, patriotism, individualism, etc.) Authority, power & legitimacy influence, and are influenced by, political culture & ideology –Political ideology: set of political values held by individuals regarding the basic goals of government & politics (what the government should or should not do re: foreign policy, military endeavors, taxation, etc.) – fascist, liberal, conservative, fundamentalist –Political culture: broad political beliefs, values, practices, & institutions the government is based upon; shared by large segments of the population (i.e. democracy, liberty, economic equality, patriotism, individualism, etc.) 2012-13Hoilman

15. 2010-2011Hoilman #3: Political & Economic Change Types of Change: –Reform: Change practices, not substance (not advocating overthrow); reformers want to influence business, environmental, religious, or taxation practices; often must wait until elections or become more involved in certain institutions (i.e. Mexican reforms regarding drug wars or Chinese economic reforms to privatize business) –Revolution: Change at the most basic level involving the revision or overthrow of existing institutions; success often requires widespread participation (i.e. Russian Revolution 1917 or Iranian Revolution 1978) –Coup d’etats (“blows to the state”): Replaces leadership, but undirected – often carried out by the military in countries where leaders have already taken control by force & are weak; usually results in another coup (Nigerian coup d’etat 1993) Types of Change: –Reform: Change practices, not substance (not advocating overthrow); reformers want to influence business, environmental, religious, or taxation practices; often must wait until elections or become more involved in certain institutions (i.e. Mexican reforms regarding drug wars or Chinese economic reforms to privatize business) –Revolution: Change at the most basic level involving the revision or overthrow of existing institutions; success often requires widespread participation (i.e. Russian Revolution 1917 or Iranian Revolution 1978) –Coup d’etats (“blows to the state”): Replaces leadership, but undirected – often carried out by the military in countries where leaders have already taken control by force & are weak; usually results in another coup (Nigerian coup d’etat 1993)

16. 2012-13Hoilman #3: Political & Economic Change continued The types of changes that take place are strongly influenced by the attitudes of those who promote the change itself –Radicalism – belief that rapid, dramatic, & systemic change is necessary (i.e. 1917 Russian Revolution) –Liberalism – promotes gradual change & transformation (i.e. suffrage & civil rights evolve) –Conservatism - change is disruptive & brings unforeseen consequences; state & regime are sources of law & order (sanctity of continuity) –Reactionary beliefs – turn back to traditional practices, law & order (i.e. communists in Russia today) The types of changes that take place are strongly influenced by the attitudes of those who promote the change itself –Radicalism – belief that rapid, dramatic, & systemic change is necessary (i.e. 1917 Russian Revolution) –Liberalism – promotes gradual change & transformation (i.e. suffrage & civil rights evolve) –Conservatism - change is disruptive & brings unforeseen consequences; state & regime are sources of law & order (sanctity of continuity) –Reactionary beliefs – turn back to traditional practices, law & order (i.e. communists in Russia today)

17. 2012-13Hoilman #3: Political & Economic Change continued TRENDS & PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT Democratization - expansion of democracy; transition process & outcome –Liberal democracies Fair, free & competitive elections Civil liberties Rule of law Neutrality of the judiciary Open civil society Civilian control of the military TRENDS & PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT Democratization - expansion of democracy; transition process & outcome –Liberal democracies Fair, free & competitive elections Civil liberties Rule of law Neutrality of the judiciary Open civil society Civilian control of the military

18. #3: Political & Economic Change continued –Illiberal democracies Coined in 1997 by Fareed Zakaria, Indian- American journalist, correspondent & author “Democratically” elected leaders restrict rights & consolidate the power of their government Basic civil liberties (freedom of speech, religion, press, etc.) are often denied Is not qualified as “free” by Freedom House (NGO that conducts research on democracy, political freedom & human rights) Some of these leaders may believe they have the right to act so long as they hold regular elections (i.e. Russia) –Illiberal democracies Coined in 1997 by Fareed Zakaria, Indian- American journalist, correspondent & author “Democratically” elected leaders restrict rights & consolidate the power of their government Basic civil liberties (freedom of speech, religion, press, etc.) are often denied Is not qualified as “free” by Freedom House (NGO that conducts research on democracy, political freedom & human rights) Some of these leaders may believe they have the right to act so long as they hold regular elections (i.e. Russia) 2012-13Hoilman

19. 2012-13Hoilman Economic Policy Shifts –Organizational re-structuring - movement toward market economy & away from command economy; involves decentralization, de-regulation & privatization - i.e. Russia –Mixed economy (blending of characteristics of socialist & capitalist economies; some economic freedom & some gov. regulation) i.e. China –Economic reforms influence, and are influenced by, political change Economic Policy Shifts –Organizational re-structuring - movement toward market economy & away from command economy; involves decentralization, de-regulation & privatization - i.e. Russia –Mixed economy (blending of characteristics of socialist & capitalist economies; some economic freedom & some gov. regulation) i.e. China –Economic reforms influence, and are influenced by, political change #3: Political & Economic Change continued

20. Revival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics –21 st Century globalization requires an understanding and acknowledgment of fragmentation (divisions within society based on ethnic, cultural or religious identity) –Nationalism remains strong in many parts of the world as well and can influence economic & political practices (i.e. trade policies, military aggression, regime change, etc.) –Supranational organizations are influenced by these politics too (U.N., E.U., OAU, NATO, etc.) Revival of Ethnic or Cultural Politics –21 st Century globalization requires an understanding and acknowledgment of fragmentation (divisions within society based on ethnic, cultural or religious identity) –Nationalism remains strong in many parts of the world as well and can influence economic & political practices (i.e. trade policies, military aggression, regime change, etc.) –Supranational organizations are influenced by these politics too (U.N., E.U., OAU, NATO, etc.) 2012-13Hoilman

21. 2012-13Hoilman #4: Citizens, Society & State Divisions within society (religion, ethnicity, gender, race, social or economic classes) are known as social cleavages & they dramatically influence political & economic activity –i.e. What mix of each group does a country have? What laws are in place to inhibit or protect the rights of certain groups? Do political elites come from a certain group? Are some groups denied access to the political system? Divisions within society (religion, ethnicity, gender, race, social or economic classes) are known as social cleavages & they dramatically influence political & economic activity –i.e. What mix of each group does a country have? What laws are in place to inhibit or protect the rights of certain groups? Do political elites come from a certain group? Are some groups denied access to the political system?

22. 2012-13Hoilman #4: Citizens, Society, & State continued Citizen-state relationships –Attitudes/beliefs of citizens – citizens can influence political decisions & changes; Political efficacy greatly impacts citizenry participation (belief that gov. will respond and/or they are able to understand the political processes) –Political socialization – the way in which citizens learn about politics (family, media, gov., etc.) –Voting behavior – consider whether elections regular, competitive, free & inclusive and whether turnout is high or low –Social cleavages influence citizens’ beliefs, participation, involvement in groups, etc. Citizen-state relationships –Attitudes/beliefs of citizens – citizens can influence political decisions & changes; Political efficacy greatly impacts citizenry participation (belief that gov. will respond and/or they are able to understand the political processes) –Political socialization – the way in which citizens learn about politics (family, media, gov., etc.) –Voting behavior – consider whether elections regular, competitive, free & inclusive and whether turnout is high or low –Social cleavages influence citizens’ beliefs, participation, involvement in groups, etc.

23. 2012-13Hoilman #5: Political Institutions Political institutions – structures of the political system (both formal & informal) –Legislative, executive, bureaucratic, & judicial (may or may not be distinct & separate branches with or without checks of power) Levels of government –Federal system – shares and divides power with sub-units or geographical provinces/states (Mexico, U.S., Russia, Nigeria) –Unitary system – concentrates power within one central government (Britain & China) Political institutions – structures of the political system (both formal & informal) –Legislative, executive, bureaucratic, & judicial (may or may not be distinct & separate branches with or without checks of power) Levels of government –Federal system – shares and divides power with sub-units or geographical provinces/states (Mexico, U.S., Russia, Nigeria) –Unitary system – concentrates power within one central government (Britain & China)

24. 2012-13Hoilman #5: Political Institutions continued Other institutions –Linkage institutions – connect citizens with policy-making arena (i.e. interest groups, political parties, electoral systems, public opinion polling organizations, media, etc.) –Supranational organizations – globalization has given rise to an increase in supranational organizations – groups that go beyond state boundaries Relationships with other countries & membership in these organizations can influence trade (NAFTA), economics & politics (OPEC, E.U., OAU), military security (NATO), & international peace (U.N.) Other institutions –Linkage institutions – connect citizens with policy-making arena (i.e. interest groups, political parties, electoral systems, public opinion polling organizations, media, etc.) –Supranational organizations – globalization has given rise to an increase in supranational organizations – groups that go beyond state boundaries Relationships with other countries & membership in these organizations can influence trade (NAFTA), economics & politics (OPEC, E.U., OAU), military security (NATO), & international peace (U.N.)

25. 2012-13Hoilman #6: Public Policy Policies are created to address certain issues & solve certain problems Created by legislative vote, executive decision, judicial rulings, or a combination of all three My be influenced by political parties or interest groups too Governments differ in how they approach issues and what importance they assign to the issues Policies are created to address certain issues & solve certain problems Created by legislative vote, executive decision, judicial rulings, or a combination of all three My be influenced by political parties or interest groups too Governments differ in how they approach issues and what importance they assign to the issues

26. 2012-13Hoilman #6: Public Policy continued Economic performance –Domestic (unemployment, inflation, GDP, etc.) and international (trade, export v. import policies, GDP, etc.) Social welfare of citizens –Health, employment, transportation infrastructure, family assistance, education, etc. (prioritization of needs, budgetary concerns, efficiency of bureaucracy, etc.) Civil liberties, rights, & freedoms –Civil rights (group protections such as voting, equality of opportunity, etc.) & civil liberties (individual protections of behaviors – speech, religion, trial by jury, etc.) –Government protection & interpretation of laws –Freedom House international rankings (1-7) Environment –Decisions regarding prevention & reduction of harmful effects on the environment & natural resources, and how gov. will address negative behaviors Economic performance –Domestic (unemployment, inflation, GDP, etc.) and international (trade, export v. import policies, GDP, etc.) Social welfare of citizens –Health, employment, transportation infrastructure, family assistance, education, etc. (prioritization of needs, budgetary concerns, efficiency of bureaucracy, etc.) Civil liberties, rights, & freedoms –Civil rights (group protections such as voting, equality of opportunity, etc.) & civil liberties (individual protections of behaviors – speech, religion, trial by jury, etc.) –Government protection & interpretation of laws –Freedom House international rankings (1-7) Environment –Decisions regarding prevention & reduction of harmful effects on the environment & natural resources, and how gov. will address negative behaviors