Social Psychology.

Social Psychology

Introduction Social Psychology = the scientific study of how we think about, influence, & relate to one another. Video on Demand - Discovering Psychology: Updated Edition - The Power of the Situation

Social Thinking

Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations
Attribution theory theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition. Fritz Heider (1958) Dispositional vs. situational attribution Fundamental attribution error the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation & to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. Self-serving bias- people accept more responsibility for good deeds than bad; & for successes more than failures

Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations Dispositional vs
Attributing Behavior to Persons or to Situations Dispositional vs. situational attribution A teacher may wonder whether a child’s hostility reflects an aggressive personality (dispositional attribution) or is a reaction to stress or abuse (a situational attribution). Dispositions are enduring personality traits. So, if Joe is a quiet, shy, & introverted child, he is likely to be like that in a number of situations. Video on Demand - Discovering Psychology: Updated Edition - Constructing Social Reality

Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition & underestimate the impact of the situations in analyzing the behaviors of others leads to the fundamental attribution error. We see Joe as quiet, shy, & introverted most of the time, but with friends he is very talkative, loud, & extroverted.

Effects of Attribution
How we explain someone’s behavior affects how we react to it. Personal relationships Political relationships Job relation ships Self perception

Attitudes & Actions Attitude A feeling based on beliefs. Predisposes a persons reactions to objects, other people, & events. Attitudes: affect actions, often predict & follow behaviors e.g. Central route persuasion - attitude change path in which interest people focus in which interested people focus on the arguments & respond with favorable thoughts. Peripheral route persuasion attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as such as a speaker’s attractiveness. imperfectly because other factors, including the external situation, also influence behavior. Attitude influence on behavior is BEST when other influences are weak & attitude is specific to the behavior, & we are keenly aware of our attitudes If we believe a person is mean, we may feel dislike for the person & act in an unfriendly manner.

Actions Can Affect Attitudes
Not only do people stand for what they believe in (attitude), they start believing in what they stand for. So… “fake it ‘til ya make it” Cooperative actions can lead to mutual liking (beliefs).

DOING BECOMES BELIEVING
Attitudes & Actions Actions Affect Attitudes - & Attidudes Follow Behaviors The Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request….. b/c doing becomes believing “start small & build” – Small Request >>>> Large Request performing a trivial act makes the next act easier . Great for manipulations & mind control Works for good & bad deeds (Civil Rights & Nazism) DOING BECOMES BELIEVING

Attitudes & Actions Actions Affect Attitudes
Role-Playing Affects Attitudes Role -a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave. New roles may feel phony at 1st , but then become the NORM 200_Zimbardo_Stanford.mp4 What we DO, we gradually BECOME 199_Stanford_situation.mp4 Stanford prison study- Zimbardo (72’) assigned the roles of guards & prisoners to random students & found that guards & prisoners developed role- appropriate attitudes. Abu Ghraib

Attitudes & Actions Actions Affect Attitudes
Cognitive Dissonance: Relief From Tension –when attitudes & actions are opposed, we experience tension. This is called cognitive dissonance. Cognitive dissonance theory theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when 2 of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. EX: when our awareness of our attitudes & of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. “Attitudes follow behavior”- we can not directly control of all our feelings, we can influence them by altering our behavior. Pretense becomes reality

Cognitive Dissonance

Social Influence Social Psychology.flv The greatest contribution of social psychology is its study of attitudes, beliefs, decisions, & actions & the way they are molded by social influence.

Conformity & Obedience
Chameleon effect – we are NATURAL mimics, unconsciously mimicking others. We feel happier around happy people & vice versa \Learning\Sheila's Psych Video of the Chameleon Effect for Western Oregon Univ..mp4 Mood linkage- studies of GROUPS confirm a sharing of up & down moods within groups. Mood contagion occurs in classrooms, movies setting, ball games etc

Conformity & Obedience Conformity - Free Intro to Psychology Video
Behavior is contagious, modeled by one followed by another. We follow behavior of others to conform. Other behaviors may be an expression of compliance (obedience) toward authority. Preview Question 3: What do experiments on conformity and compliance reveal about the power of social influence? Conformity Obedience

Conformity & Obedience Group Pressure & Conformity Obedience and Authority - Free Intro to Psychology Video Conformity adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. Solomon Asch study 204_Social_Influence.mp4 -5:06

Conformity & Obedience Solomon Asch Study

Conformity & Obedience Group Pressure & Conformity
Conditions That Strengthen Conformity One is made to feel incompetent or insecure Group has at least three people Group is unanimous One admires the group’s status One has made no prior commitment Others in group observe one’s behavior One’s culture strongly encourages respect for social standards

Conformity & Obedience Group Pressure & Conformity
Reasons for Conforming Normative social influence influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval. Informational social influence influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality.

Conformity & Obedience Obedience
Obedience 204_Social_Influence.mp4 5:04-7:28 Milgram’s studies on obedience What to know Procedure Results Ethics Follow up studies

Conformity & Obedience Obedience

Conformity & Obedience Lessons From the Conformity and Obedience Studies 204_Social_Influence.mp4 7:28- Ordinary people being corrupted by an evil situation

Group Influence Group Behavior - Free Intro to Psychology Video Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others Social Facilitation stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others. Task difficulty Expertise effects Crowding effects

Group Influence Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others
Social Loafing the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable Reasons why? Less accountability View themselves as dispensable

Group Influence Individual Behavior in the Presence of Others
Deindividuation the loss of self-awareness & self-restraint (abandoning self-restraints) occurring in group situations that foster arousal & anonymity. We forfeit our restraint to the group actions. Increase responsiveness to the group People feel BOTH Aroused & Anonymous = Dangerous Group Behavior - Free Intro to Psychology Video

Group Influence Effects of Group Interaction
Group Polarization the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion with the groups

Group Influence Effects of Group Interaction
Groupthink the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. Fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification Bay of Pigs & Challenger explosion Aspect of Groupthink EXAMNE FEW ALTERNATIVES SELECTIVE GATHERING OF INFO PRESSURE TO CONFORM W/O CRITICISM COLLECTIVE RATIONALIZATION

Cultural Influence Culture the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, & traditions shared by a group of people & transmitted from one generation to the next. Culture within animals Culture in humans

Cultural Influence Variations Across Cultures
Norm an understood rule for accepted & expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior. 207_Being_Gay.mp4 Personal space the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. Pace of life

Cultural Influence Variation Over Time
Changes over the generations

The Power of Individuals
Social control (power of the situation) vs personal control (power of the individual) INTERACT Under much outside pressure individuals may react by doing the opposite of what is expected, thereby reasserting a sense of freedom. Minority influence Power of 1 or 2 to influence the majority Holding strong to a position may not be easy or popular but can be influential

Social Relations

Prejudice How Prejudiced Are People?
Prejudice an unjustifiable (& usually negative) attitude toward a group & its members. Generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, & a predisposition to discriminatory action 211_Prejudice.mp4 Stereotype a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. Brains natural workings for categorization Stereotypes - Free Intro to Psychology Video Discrimination unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group & its members

Prejudice How Prejudiced Are People?

Prejudice Social Roots of Prejudice
Social Inequalities (eg. Haves vs. Have Nots) Us & Them: Ingroup & Outgroup Ingroup The “us” people with whom we share a common i.d (Ingroup bias) tendency to favor our own group Outgroup “Them” – those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup Emotional roots of prejudice Scapegoat theory theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame. xxx

Prejudice Cognitive Roots of Prejudice
Categorization-stereotyping/simplifying our world Outgroup homogeneity-simplification/all the same Other-race effect the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. AKA the cross-race effect & own-race bias. Vivid cases -ability to overgeneralize from vivid, memorable cases Just-world phenomenon Hindsight bias

Aggression Aggression - Free Intro to Psychology Video
Aggression any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy. 198_Actor_Observer.mp4 Varies too much across time & cultures to be considered an unlearned instinct.

Aggression : The Biology of Aggression
Genetic Influences Animals are bred for aggressive traits Searching for a genetic markers Neural Influences stimulated produce or inhibit aggression No 1 spot (limbic+, frontal lobe-) Biochemical Influences Hormones & other substances influence Neural system (testosterone, alcohol)

Aggression Psychological & Social-Cultural Factors in Aggression
Aversive Events (situation matters) Frustration-aggression principle principle that frustration (the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal) creates anger, which can generate aggression. Fight or flight reaction- prepares us for aggressive reactions Ostracism: rejection- induced aggression Social & cultural influences – learning can alter natural reactions Aggression-replacement program Trains how to control anger, & encourages more thoughtful moral reasoning

Aggression Psychological & Social-Cultural Factors
Observing models of aggression TV, Video Games, Increase in sexual aggression over time Easier access to sexually explicit movies “Rape Myth” perpetuated in Media Pornography is associated with sex offenders, sexual aggression, loss of satisfaction with one’s partner Myth that viewing Porn provides an outlet for bottled-up impulses– opposite is actually true… = an increase in punitive behavior toward women Desensitization= due to exposure not satisfaction

Aggression Psychological & Social-Cultural Factors
Determining the exact cause of Violence is like asking what causes cancer many factors can create a predisposition to sexual violence : media Desensitization Dominance motives, Disinhibition by alcohol History of child abuse

Acquiring Social Scripts
social scripts (mental tape for how to act, provided by our culture) learned then later enacted in real life Media influences this “script” Since 1990s decrease in violence in the media, but not sex The media portrays social scripts & generates mental tapes in the minds of the viewers. When confronted with new situations individuals may rely on such social scripts. If social scripts are violent in nature, people may act them out.

Do Video Games Teach or Release Violence?
Greater impact than TV Catharsis hypothesis?(We feel better if we “blow off Steam”) NO! Expressing anger & practicing violence = >in violence The general consensus on violent video games is that, to some extent, they breed violence. Adolescents view the world as hostile when they get into arguments & receive bad grades after playing such games.

Biopsychosocial Understanding of Aggression

Biopsychosocial: Understanding of Aggression

Attraction Attraction - Free Intro to Psychology Video The Psychology of Attraction
Proximity Mere exposure effect Physical attractiveness Similarity

The Psychology of Attraction
Proximity: Geographic nearness is a powerful predictor of friendship. Repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases their attraction (mere exposure effect). Preview Question 12: Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not with others? A rare white penguin born in a zoo was accepted after 3 weeks by other penguins just due to proximity.

Psychology of Attraction
Physical Attractiveness: Once proximity affords contact, the next most important thing in attraction is physical appearance. Positive: similarity symmetry average features W- youthful M- healthy looking Negative: obesity plainness

Psychology of Attraction
Similarity: Similar views among individuals causes the bond of attraction to strengthen. Reward theory of attraction- we will like those whose behavior is similar to us & that we will continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs. In Econ this is called cost / benefit analysis Similarity breeds content!

Attraction: Romantic Love
Passionate Love: An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship. Two-factor theory of emotion Physical arousal plus cognitive appraisal Arousal from any source can enhance one emotion depending upon what we interpret or label the arousal Preview Question 13: How does romantic love typically change as time passes?

Attraction: Romantic Love
Companionate Love: A deep, affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined. Courtship and Matrimony (from the collection of Werner Nekes)

Attraction Keys to Gratifying & Enduring Relationships
Equity a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. Self-disclosure revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

AltruismGroup Altruism - Free Intro to Psychology Video
An unselfish regard for the welfare of others. Preview Question 14: When are we most—and least—likely to help?

Altruism Altruism Kitty Genovese The Bystander Effect_The Death of Kitty Genovese.flv Bystander Intervention: the presence of bystanders turns people away from the path that leads to helping Decision Schema: 1. Notice the incident, interpret as an emergency, 3. assume responsibility for helping Diffusion of responsibility: decreases individual responsibility Bystander effect - the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Altruism

Altruism The Norms of Helping Reward for helping vs. Cost for helping
Social exchange theory the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits & minimize costs. Cost/Benefit Analysis in ECON Reciprocity norm an expectation that people will help, not hurt those who have helped them. Social-responsibility norm an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.

Conflict Conflict is perceived as an incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas. Elements of conflict are the same at all levels. People become deeply involved in potentially destructive social processes that have undesirable effects. Preview Question 15: How do social traps and mirror-image perceptions fuel social conflict?

Conflict & Peacemaking
Social Trap a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. Non-zero sum game

People in conflict form diabolical images of one another.
Enemy Perceptions People in conflict form diabolical images of one another. George Bush “Evil” Saddam Hussein “Wicked Pharaoh”

Conflict & Peacemaking Enemy Perceptions often lead to destructive behavior
Contact- can be good or bad. It’s the type of contact that’s important. Noncompetitive & btwn parties of equal status= helpful Mere exposure is not enough, desegregation lead to self-segregation not integration. Mirror-image perceptions get in the way Continued conflict & misperception lead to Self-fulfilling prophecy

Conflict & Peacemaking
Cooperation – 1st step to resolving conflict Superordinate goals shared goals that override differences among people & require their cooperation US/THEM: Isolation & competition = enemies of strangers WE: Shared predicaments & goals = reconciled enemies Communication- discussion of a dilemma & negotiation increases cooperation Conciliation- small conciliatory gestures (eg. Smile, touch, word) may edge down tension…. So communication & understanding can begin GRIT

The End

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Definition Slides

Social Psychology = the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Attribution Theory = the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.

Fundamental Attribution Error
= the tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Attitude = feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

Central Route Persuasion
= attitude change path in which interest people focus in which interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

Peripheral Route Persuasion
= attitude change path in which people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon
= the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Role = a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory
= the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

Conformity = adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Normative Social Influence
= influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational Social Influence
= influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept other’s opinions about reality.

Social Facilitation = stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

Social Loafing = the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Deindividuation = the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Group Polarization = the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion with the groups.

Groupthink = the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Culture = the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Norm = an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.

Personal Space = the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies.

Prejudice = an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

Stereotype = a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

Discrimination = unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.

Ingroup = “Us” – people with whom we share a common identity.

Outgroup = “Them” – those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.

Ingroup Bias = the tendency to favor our own group.

Scapegoat Theory = the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Other-race Effect = the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect and the own-race bias.

Just-World Phenomenon
= the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. Blame the victim Good is rewarded, Bad is punished

Aggression = any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

Frustration-aggression Principle
= the principle that frustration – the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal – creates anger, which can generate aggression.

Mere Exposure Effect = the phenomenon the repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

Passionate Love = an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

Companionate Love = the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

Equity = a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

Self-Disclosure = revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

Altruism = unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Bystander Effect = the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Social Exchange Theory
= the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Reciprocity Norm = an expectation that people will help, not hurt those who have helped them.

Social-Responsibility Norm
= an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.

Conflict = a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Social Trap = a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Mirror-Image Perceptions
= mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
= a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

Superordinate Goals =.

GRIT = Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction – a strategy designed to decrease international tensions. One side announces its recognition of mutual interests & intent to reduce tensions Initiation of one or more small, conciliatory acts. Without weakening one’s retaliatory capability, this modest beginning opens the door for reciprocates in kind. Conciliations allow both parties to begin edging down the tension ladder to a safer rung where communication & mutual understanding can begin

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