1. LIGHT COMMUNICATION

2. Fiber vs. Metallic Cables Advantages: Advantages: Larger bandwidthLarger bandwidth Immune to cross- talkImmune to cross- talk Immune to static interferenceImmune to static interference Do not radiate RFDo not radiate RF spark freespark free No corrosion, more environment resistiveNo corrosion, more environment resistive Disadvantages Disadvantages Initial cost of installation highInitial cost of installation high BrittleBrittle Maintenance and repair more difficult and more expensiveMaintenance and repair more difficult and more expensive

3. Typical Fiber Optical Communication System

4. Elements of a Fiber Data Link Transmitter emits light pulses (LED or Laser) Transmitter emits light pulses (LED or Laser) Connectors and Cables passively carry the pulses Connectors and Cables passively carry the pulses Receiver detects the light pulses Receiver detects the light pulses TransmitterReceiver Cable

5. Repeaters For long links, repeaters are needed to compensate for signal loss For long links, repeaters are needed to compensate for signal loss Fiber Repeater Fiber

6. Optical Fiber Core Core Glass or plastic with a higher index of refraction than the claddingGlass or plastic with a higher index of refraction than the cladding Carries the signalCarries the signal Cladding Cladding Glass or plastic with a lower index of refraction than the coreGlass or plastic with a lower index of refraction than the core Buffer Buffer Protects the fiber from damage and moistureProtects the fiber from damage and moisture Jacket Jacket Holds one or more fibers in a cableHolds one or more fibers in a cable

7. Singlemode Fiber Singlemode fiber has a core diameter of 8 to 9 microns, which only allows one light path or mode Singlemode fiber has a core diameter of 8 to 9 microns, which only allows one light path or mode Images from arcelect.com (Link Ch 2a)Images from arcelect.com (Link Ch 2a) Index of refraction

8. Multimode Step-Index Fiber Multimode fiber has a core diameter of 50 or 62.5 microns (sometimes even larger) Multimode fiber has a core diameter of 50 or 62.5 microns (sometimes even larger) Allows several light paths or modesAllows several light paths or modes This causes modal dispersion – some modes take longer to pass through the fiber than others because they travel a longer distanceThis causes modal dispersion – some modes take longer to pass through the fiber than others because they travel a longer distance See animation at link Ch 2fSee animation at link Ch 2f Index of refraction

9. Multimode Graded-Index Fiber The index of refraction gradually changes across the core The index of refraction gradually changes across the core Modes that travel further also move fasterModes that travel further also move faster This reduces modal dispersion so the bandwidth is greatly increasedThis reduces modal dispersion so the bandwidth is greatly increased Index of refraction

10. Attenuation Absorption Absorption interaction of light with electrons & molecule vibrationinteraction of light with electrons & molecule vibration Rayleigh Scattering Rayleigh Scattering caused by compositional fluctuations in glass material. Energy escapes not convertedcaused by compositional fluctuations in glass material. Energy escapes not converted Material Fabrication Material Fabrication caused impurities (transition metal ions)caused impurities (transition metal ions) Fiber Fabrication Fiber Fabrication caused by fiber imperfections (defects/stresses) Leads to Mie scattering which is independentcaused by fiber imperfections (defects/stresses) Leads to Mie scattering which is independent Deployment/Environmental Deployment/Environmental caused by bends and microbends Leads to mode conversionscaused by bends and microbends Leads to mode conversions

11. Three Types of Dispersion Dispersion is the spreading out of a light pulse as it travels through the fiber Dispersion is the spreading out of a light pulse as it travels through the fiber Three types: Three types: Modal DispersionModal Dispersion Chromatic DispersionChromatic Dispersion Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

12. Modal Dispersion Modal Dispersion Modal Dispersion Spreading of a pulse because different modes (paths) through the fiber take different timesSpreading of a pulse because different modes (paths) through the fiber take different times Only happens in multimode fiberOnly happens in multimode fiber Reduced, but not eliminated, with graded-index fiberReduced, but not eliminated, with graded-index fiber

13. Chromatic Dispersion Different wavelengths travel at different speeds through the fiber Different wavelengths travel at different speeds through the fiber This spreads a pulse in an effect named chromatic dispersion This spreads a pulse in an effect named chromatic dispersion Chromatic dispersion occurs in both singlemode and multimode fiber Chromatic dispersion occurs in both singlemode and multimode fiber Larger effect with LEDs than with lasersLarger effect with LEDs than with lasers A far smaller effect than modal dispersionA far smaller effect than modal dispersion

14. Polarization Mode Dispersion Light with different polarization can travel at different speeds, if the fiber is not perfectly symmetric at the atomic level Light with different polarization can travel at different speeds, if the fiber is not perfectly symmetric at the atomic level This could come from imperfect circular geometry or stress on the cable, and there is no easy way to correct it This could come from imperfect circular geometry or stress on the cable, and there is no easy way to correct it It can affect both singlemode and multimode fiber. It can affect both singlemode and multimode fiber.

15. Light Sources Light Emitting Diode (LED) simple construction and drive circuitry best for short distances, modest bit rates, and low channel capacity Semiconductor Laser Diode high drive currents and complex circuitry produce high power for higher bit rates and long distances

16. Light Sources: LED Usually a P-N junction aluminium-gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) or Gallium-arsenide-phosphide (GaAsP) Spontaneous emission through recombination of electrons and holes Works in forward bias, energy released as a photon A photon = a quantum of E/M wave energy

17. Light Sources: Laser Diode Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation A laser diode Is an LED with two important differences: (1) The operating current is much higher in order to produce OPTICAL GAIN (2) Two of the ends of the LD are cleaved parallel to each other. These ends act as perfectly aligned mirrors which reflect the light back and forth through the "gain medium" in order to get as much amplification as possible The typical response time of a laser diode Is 0.5 ns. The line width is around 2 nm with a typical laser power of 10's of milliwatts. The wavelength of a laser diode can be 850 nm, 1300 nm, or 1500 nm.

18. Photo-Detectors Must detect down to the order of 10-14 W Need high conversion efficiency between light and electrical energy Must respond fast for high bandwidth Must have low-noise power and good light-collecting properties Ideally, they must operate at low voltage, be easy to use, be robust and immune to changes in ambient conditions, have a long life, be reliable and inexpensive Two devices stand out: Positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) diodes Avalanche photodiodes (APD)

19. Detection Procedure Photons collide with the electrons in the Photons collide with the electrons in the valence band The electrons absorb photon energy, hv, and cross the band gap into the conduction band with charge q. The electrons absorb photon energy, hv, and cross the band gap into the conduction band with charge q. Incident optical power, P, transfers to the Incident optical power, P, transfers to the device with efficiency η. The generated photocurrent is The generated photocurrent is We resort to mean values because the whole We resort to mean values because the whole photo-detection process is stochastic.

20. Detectors: PIN Diode

21. Detectors: The APD Device

22. Detectors: Characteristics Responsivity Measure of conversion efficiency, a ratio of the output current to the input optical power (A/W) Dark current Leakage current flowing with no light input Transit time Time it takes a photo-induced carrier to cross the depletion Region Spectral response A relative spectral response vs. wavelength or frequency curve displays the range or system length possible for a given wavelength.