1. PA 105 Kaplan University

3.  Use a comma to set off the elements of a series (three or more things), including the last two. My favorite uses of the Internet are sending e- mail, surfing the Web, and using chat rooms.  You may have learned that this comma is not necessary. Sometimes, however, the last two items in your series will glom into one if you don’t use the so-called serial comma. PA 105 Kaplan University

4. Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so) to separate two independent clauses. independent clauses The public seems eager for some kind of gun control legislation, but the congress is obviously too timid to enact any truly effective measures. If the two independent clauses are brief and nicely balanced, this comma may be omitted, but the comma is always correct. Our team is very good but their team is better. PA 105 Kaplan University

5. Use a comma to set off introductory elements. Anxious about the upcoming winter, settlers began to bicker among themselves about supplies. If the introductory element is brief and the sentence can be read easily without the comma, it can be omitted. In 1649 the settlers abandoned their initial outpost. In the winter of 1644, nearly half the settlers died of starvation or exposure. PA 105 Kaplan University

6. Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. Coaches grew weary of running practices in the drafty, dreary, dilapidated gymnasium. If you could put a but or an and between the adjectives, you should put a comma between them. expensive and modern = expensive, modern.... But not “a little and old house.” “A little old house” would be correct. The designs for an expensive, modern gym should make them happy. PA 105 Kaplan University

7. Use a comma to set off states and countries, years (in a full date), titles, etc. The conference was originally set for Geneva, Switzerland, but was then rescheduled for Chicago, Illinois. Their wedding date was set for August 5, 2000, in the college chapel in Newton, Massachusetts. Tashonda Klondike, Chair of the Ways and Means Committee, submitted the committee’s final report. PA 105 Kaplan University

8. Use a comma to set off quoted language. Frost’s poem “Fire and Ice” begins with the lines, “Some say the world will end in fire, / Some say in ice.” “Fire when ready, Gridley,” the Admiral said. “We can’t see into the future,” said the President, “but we have to prepare for it nonetheless.” PA 105 Kaplan University

9. Use a comma to set off parenthetical elements. This is the most difficult rule in comma usage. A parenthetical element is “added information,” something that can be removed from a sentence without changing the essential meaning of that sentence. Deciding what is “added information” and what is essential is sometimes difficult. See the next slide. PA 105 Kaplan University

10. Parenthetical elements: Robert Frost, perhaps America’s most beloved poet, died when he was 88. Frankly, it doesn’t seem to matter. When an appositive phrase can be removed from a sentence without changing its meaning or making it ambiguous: An absolute phrase is treated as a parenthetical element: An addressed person’s name is always parenthetical: I am warning you, good citizens of Hartford, this vote is crucial to the future of our city.

11. One more parenthetical element: Excuse me, but there are, of course, many points of view that we must consider before voting. An interjection is treated as a parenthetical element: PA 105 Kaplan University

12. One last rule: Don’t over-use commas! When a comma is needed, use it; otherwise, do without. Reviewing the rules of comma usage will help you understand the way sentences are built — and that, ultimately, will help you become a better writer. PA 105 Kaplan University

14. “Verbs are the most important of all your tools. They push the sentence forward and give it momentum. Active verbs push hard; passive verbs tug fitfully.” -- William Zinsser, On Writing Well PA 105 Kaplan University

15.  In the Active voice, the subject performs the action. For example: Joseph draws a picture.  Joseph is the subject and he is doing something (drawing). PA 105 Kaplan University

16.  In passive voice the subject is acted upon. For example: The picture was drawn by Joseph. In this case, the drawing is the subject and it is being acted upon by Joseph. PA 105 Kaplan University

17.  Use passive voice when you do not wish to emphasize the subject of the sentence. Example:  Smoking is prohibited. (passive)  The management prohibits smoking. (active) The passive sentence takes attention away from management, so they do not have to be in the role of the “bad guys.” PA 105 Kaplan University

18.  Also use passive voice when you wish to emphasize what happened and the person or thing acting is unknown or unimportant. Example  Poisonous gases were found in six factories. The use of passive emphasizes the finding of gases, not who found them. Note: Because passive voice often leads to awkward or wordy constructions, use passive voice sparingly and with good reason. PA 105 Kaplan University

19.  Use active voice unless you are required or have very specific reasons for doing otherwise.  Active voice generally leads to more concise writing.  It clarifies who is performing the action. Remember: Staying active is a healthy practice, especially in your writing! PA 105 Kaplan University

20.  Many English verbs have been changed into useful nouns with the use of a suffix. Announce – announcement Propose - proposal Depart – departure Meet – meeting  For active voice sentences use the verb instead of the noun form of these kinds of words. PA 105 Kaplan University

21.  The two scientists could not arrive at a conclusion on anything.  They held discussions on several topics.  However, neither could put forth a proposal for a plan.  They only made a translation of previous studies. PA 105 Kaplan University

22.  The seeds were scattered by Jessica.  A healthy harvest is expected by Jessica and her father. Another way of preserving active voice is by placing the noun/s doing the action before the verb. Try it! PA 105 Kaplan University

23.  Jessica scattered the seeds.  Jessica and her father expected a healthy harvest. PA 105 Kaplan University

24.  All passives consist of a form of the verb to be (am, is, are, was, were, being, been) plus a past participle. Example: The boy was impressed by Ms. Jones.  A past participle is the ed form of regular verbs for irregular verbs: en, n, t) and can fill the empty slot in this sentence: “I had _______ it.” PA 105 Kaplan University

25.  Houses were destroyed by the storm.  The cake was eaten by me.  Inexpensive ways for people to have fun are provided by parks.  Oxygen was discovered in 1774 by Joseph Priestley.  A kitten was chosen by the family to have as a pet. PA 105 Kaplan University

26.  The storm destroyed houses  I ate the cake.  Parks provide inexpensive fun.  Joseph Priestley discovered oxygen in 1774.  The family chose a kitten as a pet. PA 105 Kaplan University

27.  Use active voice unless specified otherwise.  Make sure the subject is acting and not being acted upon.  Use the verb form of words with suffixes  Place subjects in front of the action they perform (this often eliminates to be verbs)  Avoid to be forms of verbs PA 105 Kaplan University

29.  The apostrophe has only a handful of uses, but these uses are very important. A misplaced apostrophe can be annoying — not to mention lonely.  The apostrophe is used:  1. to create possessives  2. to show contractions  3. to create some plural forms PA 105 Kaplan University

30.  The apostrophe is used to create possessive forms for singular and plural nouns, especially nouns referring to people.  the mayor ’ s car, my father ’ s moustache  Pedrito ’ s sister, Joe Kennedy ’ s habits PA 105 Kaplan University

31.  When a noun already ends in “s,” you can decide whether or not to use another “s” after the apostrophe.  Charles ’ s car OR Charles ’ car  With multisyllabic words, don’t add another “s” after the apostrophe.  Dumas ’ second novel, Jesus ’ birth,  Socrates ’ ideas, Illinois ’ legislature PA 105 Kaplan University

32.  To form the possessive of an inanimate object, we’re usually better off using an “of phrase,” but the apostrophe possessive is not impossible, especially with expressions of time and in personifications.  The roar of the greasepaint,  the smell of the crowd  a year ’ s salary, my heart ’ s desire, your dollar ’ s worth, the paper ’ s conclusion PA 105 Kaplan University

33.  To form the possessive of a plural noun, we pluralize first and then add the apostrophe.  The Kennedys ’ house  The children ’ s playhouse  The travelers ’ expectations  Notice that with an irregular plural, the apostrophe will come before the “s.” PA 105 Kaplan University

34.  A contraction allows us to blend sounds by omitting letters from a verb construction. The apostrophe shows where something is left out.  I am a student here = I’m a student here.  I have been working on the railroad. = I’ve been working on the railroad.  They could have been great together. = They could’ve been great together. PA 105 Kaplan University

35.  Contractions:  Let us go. = Let ’ s go.  Who is there? = Who ’ s there?  It is Dierdre. = It ’ s Dierdre.  REMINDER: It’s is a contraction for “it is”; the possessive of it = its (no apostrophe). PA 105 Kaplan University

36.  The apostrophe is also used to form the plural of digits and letters...  The word Mississippi has four s’s.  She got three A’s and two B’s last semester.  She dotted all her i’s very carefully. ... and to indicate omission of a number in a date: summer of ’99; class of ’38 PA 105 Kaplan University

37.  The mighty apostrophe doesn’t mind being used, but it wants to be used wisely.  Use it well and it will be there whenever you need it!  You can now review the apostrophe and the other marks of punctuation in the Guide to Grammar and Writing. PA 105 Kaplan University

38. Ebest, Sally Barr and Charles T. Brusaw. Writing from A to Z. Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing, 2000. Keen, Michael and Katherine H. Adams. Easy Access. Boston: McGraw Hill, 2002. Troyka, Lynn Quitman. Quick Access. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001. http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/powerpoint.htm hs.auburn.cnyric.org/teachers/.../Active%20vs.%20Passive%20 Voice.ppt PA 105 Kaplan University