1. AP Chapter 2 Chemical Equations and Reactions

2. Symbols Ag C

3. Formulas H 2 O Ba(C 2 H 3 O 2 ) 2

4. Empirical and Molecular Formulas SubstanceMolecular Formula Empirical Formula WaterH2OH2OH2OH2O BenzeneC6H6C6H6 CH AcetyleneC2H2C2H2 CH GlucoseC 6 H 12 O 6 CH 2 O

5. Atomic mass unit The atomic mass unit (u), is a unit of mass used to express atomic and molecular masses. It is the approximate mass of a hydrogen atom, a proton, or a neutron. By definition the atomic mass unit is equal to one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom.

6. The Atom The nucleus is very small, dense, and positively charged. Electrons surround the nucleus. Most of the atom is empty space

7. Subatomic Particles PARTICLESYMBOLCHARGEMASS (u) LOCATION electrone-e- 00 orbit nucleus protonp+p+ +1 11 inside nucleus neutronn0n0 0 11 inside nucleus

8. Atomic Number (Z) The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The identifying characteristic of an element.

9. Mass Number The sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.

10. Isotopes

11. This is the symbol for carbon-12. Atomic number is 6. Mass number is 12.

12. Isotopes This is the symbol for carbon-12. Atomic number is 6. Mass number is 12. Write the symbols for carbon-13 and carbon-14.

13. Isotopes

14. What is the average mass of a carbon atom?

15. 12.01

16. Atomic Mass The atomic mass of carbon is 12.01u.

17. Atomic Mass The atomic mass of carbon is 12.01u. Atomic mass is the average mass of all the isotopes of an atom. It takes into account the different isotopes of an element and their relative abundance.

18. How many electrons, protons and neutrons are in an atom of actinium with a mass number of 221?

19. 89p + 89e - 132n 0

20. How many electrons, protons and neutrons are in an atom of rhodium-105?

21. 45p + 45e - 60n 0

22. Families of the Periodic Table

23. The Noble Gases Elements in group 18 All are gases. VERY non-reactive. Have a full outer energy level.

24. The Octet Rule The octet rule states that an element's outer energy level is full and most stable when it contains eight electrons. This stability is the reason that the noble gases are so non-reactive.

25. Exception to the Octet Rule The first energy level can only hold two electrons and so elements such as Hydrogen and Helium that only have one energy level follow a “duet rule”.

26. Ion Vocabulary An ion is an atom or group of atoms that have a charge. A monatomic ion is an atom with a charge. The charge on the atom is called an oxidation number. A polyatomic ion is a group of atoms with a charge. A cation is a positive ion. An anion is a negative ion.

27. An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net positive or negative charge. cation – ion with a positive charge If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons it becomes a cation. anion – ion with a negative charge If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons it becomes an anion. Na 11 protons 11 electrons Na + 11 protons 10 electrons Cl 17 protons 17 electrons Cl - 17 protons 18 electrons 2.5

28. Ionic When an element that easily loses electrons (a metal) reacts with an element that easily gains electrons (a nonmetal), one or more electrons are transferred. This creates two ions which are held together by an ionic bond. A compound that contains ions is called an ionic compound.

29. a

30. A formula unit is the empirical formula of an ionic compound. It is the lowest whole number ratio of ions represented in an ionic compound. Examples include ionic NaCl and K 2 O. Ionic compounds do not exist as individual molecules; a formula unit thus indicates the lowest reduced ratio of ions in the compound. Formula Unit

31. Covalent When atoms share electrons the bond created is said to be covalent. Covalent bonds often form between nonmetal atoms. These covalently bonded atoms act as single units called molecules. A compound made up of molecules is a covalent compound.

35. Polyatomic Ions Note that these are charges and not oxidation numbers.

36. Types of monatomic ions and the rules for naming them The periodic table is useful in naming the monatomic ions.

37. Monatomic cations with one oxidation number The cations from the periodic table which have a single oxidation number are as follows: Group 1 (+1), Group 2 (+2), Ag +, Cd 2+, Zn 2+, and Al 3+. These types of ions are named by using the name of the element followed by the word ion. Na + sodium ion Ba 2+ barium ion Zn 2+ zinc ion We can use the roman numeral from the periodic table to identify the oxidation number for these ions.

38. Monatomic cations with multiple oxidation numbers All other cations that are not listed in the previous category (“cations with one oxidation number) are considered to have the possibility of multiple oxidation numbers. These type of ions are named by using the name of the element followed by a Roman numeral to indicate the oxidation number. Cu 2+ copper (II) Pb 4+ lead (IV) Mn 7+ manganese (VII)

39. Monatomic anions All anions from the periodic table are named by changing the ending of the element’s name to –ide. F - fluoride ion O 2- oxide ion N 3- nitride ion Count back from the noble gases starting at zero to determine the oxidation number.

40. Name these monatomic ions Rb + P 3- Fe 3+ Br‾ Mn 4+ Cd 2+

41. Write the formula for these monatomic ions. Sulfide Lead (II) Barium ion Chromium (IV) Aluminum ion Carbide

42. Formulas of Ionic Compounds: Formulas for ionic compounds can be written by the following steps:

43. Formulas of Ionic Compounds: Formulas for ionic compounds can be written by the following steps: (1) Write the formula for the cation and anion (Don’t forget to include the charge of each ion).

44. Formulas of Ionic Compounds: Formulas for ionic compounds can be written by the following steps: (1) Write the formula for the cation and anion (Don’t forget to include the charge of each ion). (2) Decide how many cations and anions are needed so that the sum of their charges balances out to be zero.

45. Formulas of Ionic Compounds: Formulas for ionic compounds can be written by the following steps: (1) Write the formula for the cation and anion (Don’t forget to include the charge of each ion). (2) Decide how many cations and anions are needed so that the sum of their charges balances out to be zero. (3) Write the formula of the compound by writing the number of cations followed by the number of anions which you used in step #2. Remember not to include the charges of the ions since now they balance out to be neutral. (*Note when using more than one polyatomic ion the polyatomic ion must be written in parentheses).

46. Write the formula for barium chloride

47. Write the formula for iron (II) oxide

48. Write the formula for calcium phosphate

49. Write the formula for ammonium carbonate

50. Write the formulas for the following compounds (a)cobalt (II) chloride (b)lithium sulfate (c)ammonium dichromate (d) aluminum oxide (e) boron (III) phosphide (f) Chromium (V) nitrate

51. Naming Ionic Compounds When naming ionic compounds the following steps are followed:

52. Naming Ionic Compounds When naming ionic compounds the following steps are followed: (1) Separate the compound into its positive and negative parts (Note that the positive part of a compound will be only the first element with the exception of ammonium which is NH 4 + )

53. Naming Ionic Compounds When naming ionic compounds the following steps are followed: (1) Separate the compound into its positive and negative parts (Note that the positive part of a compound will be only the first element with the exception of ammonium which is NH 4 + ) (2) Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion.

54. Write the name of ZnO and determine the oxidation numbers of the elements within this compound.

55. Write the name of CuO and determine the oxidation numbers of the elements within this compound.

56. Write the name of MnCO 3 and determine the oxidation numbers of the elements within this compound.

57. Write the name of Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 and determine the oxidation numbers of the elements within this compound.

58. Name the following compounds and determine the oxidation numbers of each element. (a)SrCl 2 (b) Cr(OH) 2 (c) KClO 4 (d) NH 4 MnO 4 (e) CuP

59. Binary Molecular Compounds Binary molecular compounds are composed of two different nonmetals –examples: CO, SO 2, N 2 H 4, P 4 Cl 10 These compounds are named by using a prefix to indicate the number of atoms of each element present.

60. The prefix mono- is often omitted especially when the first element would have the prefix mono- CO (example: CO is named carbon monoxide, not monocarbon monoxide).

61. NF 3 is nitrogen trifluoride N 2 O 4 is dinitrogen tetraoxide P 4 S 10 is tetraphosphorous decasulfide Name the following compounds: NF 3 N 2 O 4 P 4 S 10

62. dichlorine heptaoxide is Cl 2 O 7 carbon hexasulfide is CS 6 octaphosphorous pentaoxide is P 8 O 5 Write formulas for the following compounds: dichlorine heptaoxide carbon hexasulfide octaphosphorous pentaoxide

63. Acids Acids are compounds that give off hydrogen ions, (H + ) when dissolved in water. When a compound has hydrogen as its cation the substance is generally an acid –Examples: HCl, H 2 SO 4, H 3 PO 3 The rules for naming acids are based on the anion portion of the acid formula.

64. Rules for Naming Acids The names of acids are based on the ending of the anion name. –Examples: HCl, H 2 SO 4, H 3 PO 3 Cl‾ = chloride SO 4 2 ‾ = sulfate PO 3 3 ‾ = phophite

65. Rules for Naming Acids

66. Name the acids HNO 2 HCN H 3 PO 4

67. Write formulas for the following acids chromic acid hydroiodic acid chlorous acid

68. Balanced Chemical Equation A chemical equation is a written representation of a chemical reaction. 2Na + 2H 2 O → H 2 + 2NaOH Reactants Products Coefficients –You should be able to balance equations using coefficients.

69. Symbols Used in Equations 2Na (s) + 2H 2 O (l) → H 2(g) + 2NaOH (aq) Solid Liquid Gas Aqueous solution

70. Solid (cr) or (s) Precipitate ( ↓ ) “Heated” Escaping gas (  ) Catalyst H 2 SO 4 A word may be written above an arrow to indicate something is necessary for the reaction to occur. Other Symbols Used in Equations electricity ∆

71. Net Ionic Equations Solutions of sodium chloride and silver nitrate are mixed. Step 1: Change the word equation into a chemical equation by writing the formulas for the reactants. NaCl + AgNO 3

72. Step 2: Classify each reactant as a particular type of substance. Classification of Substances Acids: compounds with formulas that begin with H. (Examples: HCl, H 2 SO 4 ). Bases: compounds that end with OH. (Examples: NaOH, Ba(OH) 2 ) Metal Oxides: binary compounds of a metal and oxygen. (Examples: CaO, Na 2 O). Nonmetal Oxides: binary compounds of a nonmetal and oxygen. (Examples: SO 2, P 4 O 10 ). Salts: Ionic compounds other than bases and metal oxides. (Examples: NaCl, Mg 3 (PO 4 ) 2, NH 4 NO 3 ). Other Compounds: All compounds not classified as one of the five types above. (Examples: CH 4, NH 3 ). NaCl and AgNO 3 are salts

73. Salt NaCl

74. Salts A salt is an ionic compound other than a base or oxide. K 2 Cr 2 O 7 CuSO 4

75. NaCl + AgNO 3 (salt + salt) Step 3: Based on your classification of the substances determine the type of reaction.

77. NaCl + AgNO 3 (salt + salt) Step 3: Based on your classification of the substances determine the type of reaction. This is a double replacement reaction.

78. NaCl + AgNO 3 → Step 4: Predict the products of the reaction based on the reaction type. NaCl + AgNO 3 → NaNO 3 + AgCl

79. Step 5: Use solubility rules if necessary. Solutions of sodium chloride and silver nitrate are mixed.

80. Solubility Rules Soluble (strong) acids: HCl, HBr, HI, HNO 3, H 2 SO 4, HClO 4 Soluble (strong) bases: LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH) 2, Sr(OH) 2, Ba(OH) 2 Soluble salts: All salts of lithium, sodium, potassium, and ammonium cations. All salts of nitrate and acetate anions. All chloride, bromide, and iodide salts except silver, lead and mercury (I). All sulfates except silver, lead, mercury (I), calcium, strontium and barium.

81. NaCl + AgNO 3 → NaNO 3 + AgCl Step 5: Use solubility rules if necessary. Na + + Cl - + Ag + + NO 3 - → Na + + NO 3 - + AgCl

82. Step 6: Eliminate all spectator ions. –A spectator ion appears as both a reactant and a product in a chemical equation. Na + + Cl - + Ag + + NO 3 - → Na + + NO 3 - + AgCl

83. Step 7: Write the final net ionic equation Ag + + Cl - → AgCl

85. The AgCl is a precipitate A precipitate is a insoluble solid formed when solutions are mixed. Precipitates are normally formed by reacting two salts or by changing the temperature to affect the solubility of a compound within a solution.

86. Precipitate Solutions of lead nitrate and potassium iodide are mixed. What is the yellow precipitate?

87. Solid calcium phosphate is added to excess hydrochloric acid. Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 + H + → H 3 PO 4 + Ca 2+

88. Equal volumes of 0.1M sulfuric acid and 0.1M sodium hydroxide are mixed. H + + OH - → H 2 O

89. Solid barium carbonate is added to an excess of dilute nitric acid. BaCO 3 + H + → Ba 2+ + H 2 CO 3

90. Types of Net Ionic Equations 1. Double Replacement Reactions: These reactions start with two compounds and produce two different compounds. Such reactions can be expected when the two reactants are some combination of acid, base, or salt. The products can be predicted by exchanging the positive parts of the two reactants. If carbonic acid, H 2 CO 3 is produced as a product it should be written as H 2 O and CO 2. If ammonium hydroxide, NH 4 OH is produced as a product it should be written as NH 3 and H 2 O.

91. Solid barium carbonate is added to an excess of dilute nitric acid. BaCO 3 + H + → Ba 2+ + H 2 CO 3 BaCO 3 + H + → Ba 2+ + H 2 O + CO 2

92. Demo this reaction for students BaCO 3 + H + → Ba 2+ + H 2 O + CO 2

94. Solid ammonium carbonate is added to a saturated solution of barium hydroxide. (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 + Ba 2+ + OH - → NH 4 OH + BaCO 3 (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 + Ba 2+ + OH - → NH 3 + H 2 O + BaCO 3

95. Single Replacement Reactions: 2. The reactants are an element and a compound and the products are a different element and compound. A metallic element will replace the positive part of a compound or a nonmetallic element will replace the negative part of a compound.

96. Teacher Example: Calcium metal is added to dilute nitric acid.

97. Aluminum metal is added to a solution of copper (II) chloride. Al + Cu 2+ → Al 3+ + Cu

98. Liquid bromine is added to a solution of potassium iodide. Br 2 + I - → Br - + I 2

99. Solid calcium is added to warm water. Ca + HOH → H 2 + Ca 2+ + OH -

100. Synthesis (Combination) Reactions: 3.(a) Two elements combine to form a binary compound. (b) A metal oxide and water combine to form a base. (c) A nonmetal oxide and water combine to form an acid. (d) a metal oxide and a nonmetal oxide combine to form a salt. In these reactions it is necessary to know the charges of certain ions in order to predict the formulas of your products. You should determine these ion charges by using their charges within the reacting substances. If this is impossible use your prior experience or the periodic table to make a prediction.

101. Teacher Example: Magnesium metal is heated strongly in nitrogen gas.

102. Teacher Example: Calcium oxide is added to water.

103. Teacher Example: Dinitrogen trioxide gas is bubbled through water.

104. Calcium metal is heated strongly in nitrogen gas. Ca + N 2 → Ca 3 N 2

105. Teacher Example: Excess chlorine gas is passed over hot iron filings. Cl 2 + Fe → FeCl 3

106. A piece of lithium metal is dropped into a container of nitrogen gas. Li + N 2 → Li 3 N

107. Solid barium oxide is added to distilled water. BaO + HOH → Ba 2+ + OH -

108. Lithium oxide powder is added to excess water. Li 2 O + H 2 O → Li + + OH -

109. Solid dinitrogen pentoxide is added to water. N 2 O 5 + H 2 O → H + + NO 3 -

110. Phosphorus (V) oxide powder is sprinkled over distilled water. P 2 O 5 + HOH → H 3 PO 4

111. Metal oxide + Nonmetal oxide Solid calcium oxide is exposed to a stream of carbon dioxide gas. CaO + CO 2 → CaCO 3

112. Solid calcium oxide is heated in the presence of sulfur trioxide gas. CaO + SO 3 → CaSO 4

113. Decomposition Reactions: 4.These reactions begin with a single compound and decompose into more than one product. In general they are simply the reverse of the synthesis reactions listed in #3 above. There are however a few other common decomposition reactions that you should learn: (a) Hydrogen peroxide, H 2 O 2 will decompose into water, H 2 O and oxygen, O 2. (b) Potassium chlorate, KClO 3 will decompose into potassium chloride, KCl and oxygen O 2.

114. Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. H 2 O 2 → H 2 O + O 2

115. Decomposition of potassium chlorate. KClO 3 → KCl + O 2

116. Here are some decomposition reactions from previous AP Tests Solid calcium sulfite is heated in a vacuum. A solution of hydrogen peroxide is exposed to an iron catalyst. Solid potassium chlorate is heated in the presence of a manganese dioxide catalyst.

117. Complex Ion Formation (Coordination Compounds): 5.These reactions involve the reaction of two compounds to form a complex ion (coordination compound). One of the reacting compounds serves as a source of metal ions and the other reacting compound serves as a source of ligands. A complex ion (coordination compound) is a combination of metal ions and ligands. Ligands are normally ammonia (NH 3 ), hydroxide (OH - ), or cyanide (CN - ). There needs to be a large supply of ligand for a complex ion to form. This is normally indicated within a reaction by words such as concentrated and/or excess. To form a complex ion take the metal ion and add a number of ligands which equal twice the metal ions oxidation number. For example if the metal ion has an oxidation number of 2 + you should add four of the ligands to it. Then simply add up the charges within the complex ion and determine the final charge.

118. Teacher Example: Excess concentrated ammonia is added to a solution of nickel (II) sulfate.

119. An excess of ammonia gas is bubbled through a solution saturated with silver chloride. NH 3 + AgCl → Ag(NH 3 ) 2 + + Cl - What happens to the AgCl in this reaction?

120. Excess concentrated potassium hydroxide solution is added to a precipitate of zinc hydroxide. OH - + Zn(OH) 2 → Zn(OH) 4 2-

121. Excess sodium cyanide solution is added to a solution of silver nitrate. CN - + Ag + → Ag(CN) 2 -

122. Concentrated (15M) ammonia solution is added in excess to a solution of copper (II) nitrate. NH 3 + Cu 2+ → Cu(NH 3 ) 4 2+

123. Excess concentrated sodium hydroxide solution is added to solid aluminum hydroxide. OH - + Al(OH) 3 → Al(OH) 6 3-

124. Combustion Reactions:

125. Combustion Hexane is burned in excess oxygen. Propanol is burned completely in air.

126. Bronsted acid: a compound that donates a hydrogen ion (H + ) to another compound. Bronsted base: a compound that accepts a hydrogen ion (H + ) from another compound. CH 3 CO 2 H + H 2 O → CH 3 CO 2 - + H 3 O + H 2 O + NH 3 → OH - + NH 4 + H 3 O + is a hydronium ion. H 2 O is amphoteric (it can act like an acid or a base

127. Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reaction Sodium burns in air. Na + O 2 → NaO In a redox reaction the oxidation numbers of at least some of the substances change.

128. Reversible Reaction N 2 + 3H 2 ↔ 2NH 3

129. Catalyst Speeds up a reaction without being permanently changed in the process. Example: enzymes

130. Hydrates CoCl 2 ∙ 6H 2 O CoCl 2