1. The Animal Body and How It Moves
Chapter 22
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2. Vertebrate Body Organization Vertebrate Organ Systems Epithelium
Outline
Animal Body Plan
Vertebrate Body Organization
Vertebrate Organ Systems
Epithelium
Connective Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Nerve Tissue
Skeletal System
Bones and Muscles
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3. Radial Versus Bilateral Symmetry
Radial Symmetry - body parts are arranged around a central axis.
Bilateral Symmetry - body has a right and left half that are mirror images of each other.
Allows different organs to be located in different parts of the body.
Allows for more efficient movement.
Allows for cephalization - evolution of definite head and brain area.
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4. Body Cavity Versus No Cavity
Presence of body cavity allows dramatic expansion of portions of digestive tract.
Allows for more storage and time for enzymatic activity for enhanced digestion.
Allows animals to eat more during safe periods.
Allows space for gonad expansion.
Diverse breeding strategies.
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5. Body Cavity Versus No Cavity
Kinds of Body Cavities
Acoleomates - No body cavity.
Pseudocoelomate - Body cavity located between endoderm and mesoderm.
Coelomates - Body cavity forms entirely within mesoderm.
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6. Nonsegmented Versus Segmented Bodies
Advantages of early embryonic segmentation:
Each segment may develop a more or less complete set of adult organ systems.
Locomotion is more effective because of increased flexibility.
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7. Protostomes Versus Deuterstomes
Deuterstomes evolved from protostomes more than 630 mya. Differ fundamentally in three aspects of embryonic growth.
Cleavage
Blastophore determination of body axis
Developmental fate of embryo
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8. Vertebrate Body Organization
General Architecture
Food flows from in tube from mouth to anus.
Suspended in coelom, divided into:
Thoracic cavity (heart and lungs)
Abdominal cavity (stomach intestines)
Supported by skeleton made up of jointed bones.
Skull protects brain.
Vertebral column protects spinal cord.
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9. Vertebrate Body Organization
Tissues
Cells of same type organized into tissues.
Three fundamental layers
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ectoderm
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10. Vertebrate Body Organization
Adult tissues grouped into four general classes:
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nerve
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11. Vertebrate Body Organization
Organs
Body structures composed of several different tissues grouped together into a larger structural and functional unit.
Organ Systems
Group of organs that work together to carry out important function.
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12. Vertebrate Organ Systems
Skeletal
Bones, Skull, Cartilage, Ligaments
Circulatory
Heart, Blood Vessels, Blood
Endocrine
Pituitary, Adrenal, Thyroid Glands
Nervous
Nerves, Brain, Spinal Cord
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13. Vertebrate Organ Systems
Respiratory
Lungs, Trachea
Immune
Lymphocytes, Macrophages, Antibodies
Digestive
Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach, Intestines, Liver, Pancreas
Urinary
Kidneys, Bladder
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14. Vertebrate Organ Systems
Muscular
Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscle
Reproductive
Testes, Ovaries
Integumentary
Skin, Hair, Nails, Sweat Glands
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15. Body cavity lined with cells developed from embryonic mesoderm tissue.
Epithelium
Outside of body covered with cells developed from embryonic ectoderm tissue.
Body cavity lined with cells developed from embryonic mesoderm tissue.
Hollow inner core of digestive tract lined with cells developed from embryonic endoderm tissue.
Collectively termed epithelium.
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16. Epithelium Functions:
Protect tissues from dehydration and mechanical damage.
Provide sensory surfaces.
Secrete materials.
Types of Epithelial Cells:
Squamous
Cubodial
Columnar
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17. Three general kinds of Epithelial Tissue: Simple Epithelium
Single cell layer thick - lining lungs and major body cavities.
Stratified Epithelium
Complex layer of cells - skin.
Glands
Secretion
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18. Connective tissue cells fall into three functional categories:
Immune System - Defense
Skeletal System - Support
Blood and Fat - Storage and Distribution
Immune System
Macrophages - Engulf and digest invaders.
Lymphocytes - Produce antibodies and attack virus-infected cells.
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19. Skeletal Connective Tissue
Fibroblasts - Secrete structurally strong proteins into spaces between cells.
Cartilage - Collagen matrix forms long parallel arrays along lines of stress.
Bone - Collagen fibers coated with calcium phosphate.
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20. Storage and Transport Connective Tissues
Adipose Tissue - Fat accumulating cells.
Erthrocytes - Red blood cells that transport oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood.
Move in plasma.
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21. Shortening of fibers produces considerable force.
Muscle Tissue
Distinguishing characteristics of muscle cells is abundance of contractible protein fibers (Microfilaments).
Shortening of fibers produces considerable force.
Kinds of Muscle Cells
Smooth - Microfilament loosely organized.
Skeletal and Cardiac - Microfilaments bunched into myofibrils (Striated Muscle).
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22. Composed of two types of cells:
Nerve Tissue
Composed of two types of cells:
Neurons - Specialized for transmission of nerve impulses.
Glial Cells - Supply neurons with nutrients, support, and insulation.
Neuron plasma membranes are rich in ion-selective channels that maintain voltage difference between cell interior and exterior.
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23. Each neuron composed of: Cell Body - Contains nucleus.
Nerve Tissue
Each neuron composed of:
Cell Body - Contains nucleus.
Dendrites - Bring nerve impulses to cell.
Axon - Carries nerve impulses away.
Nerve is made of axons of many neurons.
Gaps (synapses) separate neurons.
Neurons communicate by passing neurotransmitters across the gap.
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24. Johnson - The Living World: 3rd Ed
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25. Hydraulic - Fluid-filled cavity encircled by muscle fibers.
Types of Skeletons
Hydraulic - Fluid-filled cavity encircled by muscle fibers.
Exoskeletons - Rigid hard case surrounding body.
Endoskeletons - Rigid internal skeleton.
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26. Made up of 206 individual bones.
Types of Skeletons
Human Skeleton
Made up of 206 individual bones.
Axial Skeleton (80 bones) support main body axis.
Skull, Backbone, and Rib Cage.
Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones) support arms and legs.
Pectoral girdle
Pelvic girdle
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27. Johnson - The Living World: 3rd Ed
Johnson - The Living World: 3rd Ed. - All Rights Reserved - McGraw Hill Companies

28. Outer bone layer is dense and compact (compact bone).
Structure of Bone
Bone is produced when needle-shaped crystals surround and impregnate collagen fiber.
Outer bone layer is dense and compact (compact bone).
Interior of bone is open lattice structure (spongy bone).
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29. New Bone Formed in Two Stages:
Structure of Bone
New Bone Formed in Two Stages:
Collagen secreted by osteoblasts which lay down matrix of fibrils.
Calcium minerals impregnate fibrils.
Layers form as series of tubes around narrow central channel (Haversian Channel) running parallel to length of bone.
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30. Two cell types responsible for bone remodeling during growth:
Structure of Bone
Two cell types responsible for bone remodeling during growth:
Osteoblasts - Deposit bone.
Osteoclasts - Secrete enzymes that digest organic matrix of bone, liberating calcium for reabsorption.
Osteoporosis - Excessive bone loss usually associated with aging.
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31. Bone Structure
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32. Skeletal Muscle - Move bones of the skeleton.
Kinds of Muscle
Skeletal Muscle - Move bones of the skeleton.
Each muscle fiber consists of many elongated myofibrils, in turn composed of many myofilaments.
Contains protein filaments actin and myosin.
Cardiac Muscle - Composed of chains of single cells organized into fibers that branch and interconnect.
Coupled by gap junctions.
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33. Some contract only when stimulated by a nerve or hormone.
Kinds of Muscle
Smooth Muscle - Contain long, spindle-shaped cells. Individual myofilaments are not aligned into orderly assemblies, but into sheets.
Some contract only when stimulated by a nerve or hormone.
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34. Straps of densely connective tissue attaching muscles to bones.
Kinds of Muscle
Tendons
Straps of densely connective tissue attaching muscles to bones.
Bones pivot about flexible joints, pulled back and forth by muscles.
Origin attached by tendon to stationary bone.
Insertion attached to bone that moves during muscle contraction.
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35. Skeletal Muscle Organization
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36. Skeletal Muscle Organization
Muscles in movable joints of vertebrates are attached in opposing pairs:
Flexors and Extensors
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37. How Muscles Work
When myosin filaments contract heads of myosin filaments move first, moving them closer in the direction of the flex.
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38. How Muscles Work
Nerve fibers embedded in surface of muscle fiber forming neuromuscular junction.
When signal reaches end of neuron, neuron releases acetylcholine into gap separating neuron from muscle.
Depolarization
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39. Johnson - The Living World: 3rd Ed
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40. Role of Calcium Ions in Contraction
How Muscles Work
Role of Calcium Ions in Contraction
When muscle is relaxed, attachment sites for myosin heads are physically blocked by tropomyosin.
In order to contract a muscle, troponin must move tropomyosin.
Complex regulated calcium ion concentration.
Muscle fibers store Ca++ in sarcoplasmic reticulum.
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41. Calcium Controls Muscle Contraction
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42. Vertebrate Body Organization Vertebrate Organ Systems Epithelium
Review
Animal Body Plan
Vertebrate Body Organization
Vertebrate Organ Systems
Epithelium
Connective Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Nerve Tissue
Skeletal System
Bones and Muscles
Johnson - The Living World: 3rd Ed. - All Rights Reserved - McGraw Hill Companies

43. Copyright © McGraw-Hill Companies
Permission required for reproduction or display
Johnson - The Living World: 3rd Ed. - All Rights Reserved - McGraw Hill Companies