2. 1 Conservation laws Kihyeon Cho March 19, 2009 Journal Club

3. 2 Contents Baryon numbers Lepton numbers Strangeness Charm Bottom Top

4. 3 Conservation Laws When something doesn’t happen there is usually a reason! Read: M&S Chapters 2, 4, and 5.1, That something is a conservation law ! A conserved quantity is related to a symmetry in the Lagrangian that describes the interaction. (“Noether’s Theorem”) A symmetry is associated with a transformation that leaves the Lagrangian invariant. time invariance leads to energy conservation translation invariance leads to linear momentum conservation rotational invariance leads to angular momentum conservation Familiar Conserved Quantities Quantity Strong EM Weak Comments energyYYYsacred linear momentumYYYsacred ang. momentumYYYsacred electric chargeYYYsacred

5. 4 표준모형 (Standard Model) What does world made of? – 6 quarks u, d, c, s, t, b Meson (q qbar) Baryon (qqq) – 6 leptons e, muon, tau e, , 

6. 5 Standard Model b, c are heavier than other quarks - heavy flavor quarks W, Z, top are stand out from the rest. +2/3e -1/3e 0

7. 6 Matter Hadron (Quark) - size –Baryon (qqq): proton, neutron –Meson (q qbar): pion, kaon Lepton – no size –Point particle

8. 7 Definition Baryon number B = (# of quark – # of anti-quark) /3 ex) Proton = +1 (uud) Neutron = +1 (udd) pion = 0 (u ubar) Lepton number L= # of lepton – # of anti-lepton ex) e- = +1, anti-neutrino_e = -1 Proton = 0 Neutron = 0

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10. 9 Strangeness S= - (n of s - n_sbar) n_s= number of strange quark n_sbar = number of anti-strange quark

11. 10 Charm C= (n_c - n_cbar) n_c= number of charm quark n_cbar = number of anti-charm quark

12. 11 Bottom B= - (n_b - n_bbar) n_b= number of bottom quark n_bbar = number of anti-bottom quark

13. 12 Top T= (n_t - n_tbar) n_t= number of top quark n_tbar = number of anti-top quark

14. 13 Summary duscbt Charge-1/3e2/3e-1/3e2/3e-1/3e2/3e Baryon1/3 Lepton000000 Strange ness 00000 Charm000100 Bottom00000 Top000001

15. 14 Examples B0s -> J/psi phi B: 0 -> 0 0 L: 0 -> 0 0 C: 0 -> 0 0 S: -1 -> 0 0 (Strangeness 보존이 안됨 ) B0s => s bbar B=+1, S=-1 J/psi => c cbar phi => s sbar

16. 15 Other Conserved Quantities Quantity Strong EM Weak Comments Baryon numberYYYno p  +  0 Lepton number(s)YYYno  -  e -  Nobel 88, 94, 02 topYYNdiscovered 1995 strangenessYYNdiscovered 1947 charmYYNdiscovered 1974, Nobel 1976 bottomYYNdiscovered 1977 Isospin YNNproton = neutron (m u  m d ) Charge conjugation (C) YYNparticle  anti-particle Parity (P)YYNNobel prize 1957 CP or Time (T)YYy/nsmall No, Nobel prize 1980 CPTYYYsacred G ParityYNNworks for pions only Classic example of strangeness violation in a decay:  p  - (S=-1  S=0) Very subtle example of CP violation: expect:K o long  +  0  - BUT K o long  +  - (  1 part in 10 3 ) Neutrino oscillations give first evidence of lepton # violation! These experiments were designed to look for baryon # violation!!

17. 16 Conservation Rules Conserved Quantity WeakElectromagneti c Strong I(Isospin)No (  I=1 or ½) NoYes (No in 1996) S(Strangeness) No(  S=1,0) Yes C(charm) No (  C=1,0) Yes P(parity)NoYes C(charge)NoYes CPNoYes

18. 17 Back-up

19. 18 Angular Momentum

20. 19 Some Reaction Examples Problem 2.1 (M&S page 43): a) Consider the reaction v u +p  + +n What force is involved here? Since neutrinos are involved, it must be WEAK interaction. Is this reaction allowed or forbidden? Consider quantities conserved by weak interaction: lepton #, baryon #, q, E, p, L, etc. muon lepton number of v u =1,  + =-1 (particle Vs. anti-particle) Reaction not allowed! b) Consider the reaction v e +p  e - +  + +p Must be weak interaction since neutrino is involved. conserves all weak interaction quantities Reaction is allowed c) Consider the reaction  e - +  + + (anti-v e ) Must be weak interaction since neutrino is involved. conserves electron lepton #, but not baryon # (1  0) Reaction is not allowed d) Consider the reaction K +  - +  0 + (anti-v  ) Must be weak interaction since neutrino is involved. conserves all weak interaction (e.g. muon lepton #) quantities Reaction is allowed

21. 20 More Reaction Examples Let’s consider the following reactions to see if they are allowed: a) K + p  +  + b) K - p  n c) K 0  +  - First we should figure out which forces are involved in the reaction. All three reactions involve only strongly interacting particles (no leptons) so it is natural to consider the strong interaction first. a)Not possible via strong interaction since strangeness is violated (1  -1) b)Ok via strong interaction (e.g. strangeness –1  -1) c)Not possible via strong interaction since strangeness is violated (1  0) If a reaction is possible through the strong force then it will happen that way! Next, consider if reactions a) and c) could occur through the electromagnetic interaction. Since there are no photons involved in this reaction (initial or final state) we can neglect EM. Also, EM conserves strangeness. Next, consider if reactions a) and c) could occur through the weak interaction. Here we must distinguish between interactions (collisions) as in a) and decays as in c). The probability of an interaction (e.g. a) involving only baryons and mesons occurring through the weak interactions is so small that we neglect it. Reaction c) is a decay. Many particles decay via the weak interaction through strangeness changing decays, so this can (and does) occur via the weak interaction. To summarize: a)Not possible via weak interaction c)OK via weak interaction Don’t even bother to consider Gravity!

22. 21 Example (cont’d) StrongEMweakConclusion K + p  +  + No (  S=1) No (No photon) No (Meson& Baryon only) No K - p  n YesNoYesStrong K 0  +  - No (  S=1) No (No photon) YesWeak

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24. 23 Conserved Quantities and Symmetries Every conservation law corresponds to an invariance of the Hamiltonian (or Lagrangian) of the system under some transformation. We call these invariances symmetries. There are 2 types of transformations: continuous and discontinuous Continuous  give additive conservation laws x  x+dx or   +d  examples of conserved quantities: electric charge momentum baryon # Discontinuous  give multiplicative conservation laws parity transformation: x, y, z  (-x), (-y), (-z) charge conjugation (particle  antiparticle): e -  e + examples of conserved quantities: parity (in strong and EM) charge conjugation (in strong and EM) parity and charge conjugation (strong, EM, almost always in weak)

25. 24 Three Important Discrete Symmetries Parity, P –Parity reflects a system through the origin. Converts right-handed coordinate systems to left-handed ones. –Vectors change sign but axial vectors remain unchanged x   xL  L Charge Conjugation, C –Charge conjugation turns a particle into its anti-particle e   e  K   K   Time Reversal, T –Changes the direction of motion of particles in time t  t CPT theorem –One of the most important and generally valid theorems in quantum field theory. –All interactions are invariant under combined C, P and T transformations. –Implies particle and anti-particle have equal masses and lifetimes  

26. 25 Parity Quantum Number

27. 26 Charge-conjugation Quantum Number

28. 27 C, P, T violation? Since early universe… “Alice effect” Intuitively… Boltzmann and S=kln  C is violated P is violated T is violated

29. 28 C and P violation! Experiments show that only circled ones exist in Nature C and P are both maximally violated! But, CP and T seems to be conserved, or is it? CP We can test this in 1 st generation meson system: Pions

30. 29 CP and T violation! For 37 years, CP violation involve Kaons only! Is CP violation a general property of the SM or is it simply an accident to the Kaons only? CP violation T violation K 0   +   - We can test this in 2 nd generation meson system: Kaons Need 3 rd generation system: B-mesons and B-factories

31. 30 Conserved Quantities and Symmetries Example of classical mechanics and momentum conservation. In general a system can be described by the following Hamiltonian: H=H(p i,q i,t) with p i =momentum coordinate, q i =space coordinate, t=time Consider the variation of H due to a translation q i only. For our example dp i =dt=0 so we have: Using Hamilton’s canonical equations: We can rewrite dH as: If H is invariant under a translation (dq) then by definition we must have: This can only be true if: Thus each p component is constant in time and momentum is conserved.

32. 31 Conserved Quantities and Quantum Mechanics In quantum mechanics quantities whose operators commute with the Hamiltonian are conserved. Recall: the expectation value of an operator Q is: How does change with time? Recall Schrodinger’s equation: Substituting the Schrodinger equation into the time derivative of Q gives: H + = H *T = hermitian conjugate of H Since H is hermitian ( H + = H ) we can rewrite the above as: So then is conserved.

33. 32 Conservation of electric charge and gauge invariance Conservation of electric charge:  Q i =  Q f Evidence for conservation of electric charge: Consider reaction e -  v e which violates charge conservation but not lepton number or any other quantum number. If the above transition occurs in nature then we should see x-rays from atomic transitions. The absence of such x-rays leads to the limit:  e > 2x10 22 years There is a connection between charge conservation, gauge invariance, and quantum field theory. Recall Maxwell’s Equations are invariant under a gauge transformation: A Lagrangian that is invariant under a transformation U=e i  is said to be gauge invariant. There are two types of gauge transformations: local:  =  (x,t) global:  =constant, independent of (x,t) Conservation of electric charge is the result of global gauge invariance Photon is massless due to local gauge invariance Maxwell’s EQs are locally gauge invariant

34. 33 Assessment Global gauge invariance implies the existence of a conserved current, according to Noether’s theorem. Local gauge invariance requires the introduction of massless vector bosons, restricts the form of the interactions of gauge bosons with sources, and generates interactions among the gauge bosons if the symmetry is non-Abelian. - Chris Quigg P63

35. 34 Gauge invariance, Group Theory, and Stuff Consider a transformation (U) that acts on a wavefunction (  ):  U  Let U be a continuous transformation then U is of the form: U=e i    is an operator. If  is a hermitian operator (  =  *T ) then U is a unitary transformation: U=e i  U + =(e i  ) *T = e -i  *T = e -i   UU + = e i  e -i  =1 Note: U is not a hermitian operator since U  U + In the language of group theory  is said to be the generator of U There are 4 properties that define a group: 1) closure: if A and B are members of the group then so is AB 2) identity: for all members of the set I exists such that IA=A 3) Inverse: the set must contain an inverse for every element in the set AA -1 =I 4) Associativity: if A,B,C are members of the group then A(BC)=(AB)C If  = (  1,  2,  3,..) then the transformation is “Abelian” if: U(  1 )U(  2 ) = U(  2 )U(  1 ) i.e. the operators commute If the operators do not commute then the group is non-Abelian. The transformation with only one  forms the unitary abelian group U(1) The Pauli (spin) matrices generate the non-Abelian group SU(2) S= “special”= unit determinant U=unitary n=dimension (e.g.2)

36. 35 Global Gauge Invariance and Charge Conservation The relativistic Lagrangian for a free electron is:  is the electron field (a 4 component spinor) m is the electrons mass  u = “gamma” matrices, four (u=0,1,2,3) 4x4 matrices that satisfy  u  v +  v  u =2g uv  u          t  x  y  z  Let’s apply a global gauge transformation to L By Noether’s Theorem there must be a conserved quantity associated with this symmetry! This Lagrangian gives the Dirac equation:

37. 36 The Dirac Equation on One Page A solution (one of 4, two with +E, two with -E) to the Dirac equation is : The function U is a (two-component) SPINOR and satisfies the following equation: The Dirac equation: Spinors are most commonly used in physics to describe spin 1/2 objects. For example: Spinors also have the property that they change sign under a 360 0 rotation!

38. 37 E-L equation in 1D Global Gauge Invariance and Charge Conservation We need to find the quantity that is conserved by our symmetry. In general if a Lagrangian density, L=L( ,  x u ) with  a field, is invariant under a transformation we have: For our global gauge transformation we have: Plugging this result into the equation above we get (after some algebra…) The first term is zero by the Euler-Lagrange equation. The second term gives us a continuity equation. Result from field theory

39. 38 Global Gauge Invariance and Charge Conservation The continuity equation is: Recall that in classical E&M the (charge/current) continuity equation has the form: Also, recall that the Schrodinger equation give a conserved (probability) current: If we use the Dirac Lagrangian in the above equation for L we find: This is just the relativistic electromagnetic current density for an electron. The electric charge is just the zeroth component of the 4-vector: Therefore, if there are no current sources or sinks (  J=0) charge is conserved as: (J 0, J 1, J 2, J 3 ) =( , J x, J y, J z ) Result from quantum field theory Conserved quantity

40. 39 Local Gauge Invariance and Physics Some consequences of local gauge invariance: a) For QED local gauge invariance implies that the photon is massless. b) In theories with local gauge invariance a conserved quantum number implies a long range field. e.g. electric and magnetic field However, there are other quantum numbers that are similar to electric charge (e.g. lepton number, baryon number) that don’t seem to have a long range force associated with them! Perhaps these are not exact symmetries!  evidence for neutrino oscillation implies lepton number violation. c) Theories with local gauge invariance can be renormalizable, i.e. can use perturbation theory to calculate decay rates, cross sections, etc. Strong, Weak and EM theories are described by local gauge theories. U(1) local gauge invariance first discussed by Weyl in 1919 SU(2) local gauge invariance discussed by Yang&Mills in 1954 (electro-weak)  e i  (x,t)   is represented by the 2x2 Pauli matrices (non-Abelian) SU(3) local gauge invariance used to describe strong interaction (QCD) in 1970’s  e i  (x,t)   is represented by the 3x3 matrices of SU(3) (non-Abelian)

41. 40 Local Gauge Invariance and QED Consider the case of local gauge invariance, = (x,t) with transformation: The relativistic Lagrangian for a free electron is NOT invariant under this transformation. The derivative in the Lagrangian introduces an extra term: We can MAKE a Lagrangian that is locally gauge invariant by adding an extra piece to the free electron Lagrangian that will cancel the derivative term. We need to add a vector field A u which transforms under a gauge transformation as: A u  A u +  u  (x,t) with (x,t)=-q  (x,t) (for electron q=-|e|) The new, locally gauge invariant Lagrangian is:

42. 41 The Locally Gauge Invariance QED Lagrangian Several important things to note about the above Lagrangian: 1) A u is the field associated with the photon. 2) The mass of the photon must be zero or else there would be a term in the Lagrangian of the form: m  A u A u However, A u A u is not gauge invariant! 3) F uv =  u A v -  v A u and represents the kinetic energy term of the photon. 4) The photon and electron interact via the last term in the Lagrangian. This is sometimes called a current interaction since: In order to do QED calculations we apply perturbation theory (via Feynman diagrams) to J u A u term. 5) The symmetry group involved here is unitary and has one parameter  U(1) e-e- e-e-  AuAu JuJu

43. 42 References Class P720.02 by Richard Kass (2003) B.G Cheon’s Summer School (2002) S.H Yang’s Colloquium (2001) Class by Jungil Lee (2004) PDG home page (http://pdg.lbl.gov)