1. EVOLUTION Neanderthal Modern day human
Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens

2. If evolution was condensed into 1 day…..
yrs.
yrs.
yrs.
yrs.

5. change in organisms over time
Evolution-
The theory of evolution suggests that organisms that exist today evolved from earlier, more primitive forms over a long period of time.
Evidence of Evolution-
1. Fossils- shows common ancestry among organisms
~any remains or trace of a once- living organism
~found in __________________rock*, ice, tar or amber
change in organisms over time
“the diversity of living things as well as their unity may be the result of evolution”
sedimentary
*sedimentary rock is a type of rock formed from layers of particles that settled to the bottom of a body of water, often containing fossils

6. ~the ages of rocks have been determined by ___________________
~lower layers of rock contain _______________life forms
~upper layers of rock contain _____________________life forms
radioactive dating
older, simpler
newer, more complex

8. 2. Comparative Anatomy- shows common ancestry among organisms
a. homologous structures- structures in various organisms that are similar in structure and origin but have different functions in each organisms
ex). whale flipper, bat wing and human arm

10. b. vestigial structures- structures that were once functional but no longer
are.
ex). appendix, tailbone, wisdom teeth
Discover 6/04

11. 3. Comparative Embryology- shows common ancestry among organisms
When you compare vertebrate___________ embryos, at some point in development, they all have similar appearances (gill slits, tails)
w/a backbone
Fish Salamander Tortoise Chick Hog Cat Rabbit Human

12. 4. Comparative Cytology- shows common ancestry among organisms
~all living things are made of cells
~all cells have similar organelles with similar functions
5. Comparative Biochemistry- shows common ancestry among organisms
~all living things contain similar compounds _________________________________
~the closer the relationship between organisms, the greater the similarity of their chemicals (humans can use insulin from sheep and pigs!)
the study of cells
enzymes
hormones
DNA
glucose

13. Theory of Spontaneous Generation
Idea that living things could arise spontaneously from things like mud, sweat, decaying meat.
Redi disproved this theory.
A relatively simple sketch of Redi's experiment regarding spontaneous generation. Starting from the left, the first flask is capped, and no maggots grow within it, then in the second flask flies are kept out, but the mesh allows maggots to grow within, and finally flies are allowed into the third flask where maggots grow.

14. 1. Jean Baptiste Lamarck-
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
1. Jean Baptiste Lamarck-
Theory of use and disuse- “use it or lose it”. He theorized that if you need a structure and use it , it will become more developed over time.
Likewise, if you no longer need a structure (appendix, tail) and stop using it, it will decrease in size, become non-functional or disappear.
b. Theory of Acquired Characteristics-
He believed that traits acquired in a
lifetime are passed on to offspring
(like my acquired taste for chocolate!)

15. August Weismann-
disproved Lamarck's theory of acquired characteristics. His experiment: he removed the tails of mice, mated them and all of the offspring HAD tails!
Other examples that support Weismann:
dog breeds with clipped tails and ears, circumcision

16. 3. Charles Darwin- theorized that evolution occurred as a result of
3. Charles Darwin- theorized that evolution occurred as a result of Natural Selection.. The main points of his theory:
a. overproduction-
most species produce more offspring than can survive because of limited food and space
b. competition-
overproduction leads to a struggle for available food, water, space and mates
c. survival of the fittest-
~variations among individuals make some better adapted or more “fit ”
~the “fit” survive because they are best adapted to the environment
~(the “fit” are not necessarily the
strongest)
Look at these examples of “fit” organisms: leaf fish, frog, spider, ptarmagin

17. d. natural selection-
nature “selects” organisms with optimal traits (the “fittest”) to survive and be the parents of the next generation.
This next generation will inherit the favorable characteristics that enabled their parents to survive & reproduce
e. speciation-
when a new species arises with helpful variations/adaptations that have accumulated over many generations
An older Darwin

21. Survival of the fittest……this tree has adapted to grow on the side of a hill (Thatcher Park, 9/05)

25. MODERN THEORY OF EVOLUTION
a. Today’s theorists accept Darwin’s ideas of natural selection, BUT Darwin’s theory DID NOT address how variations arise in a population.
For example, why do some giraffes have long necks and some have short ones?
The answer is from gene mutation and random recombination of genes during _________________
The same thing goes for humans. We’re all different because of mutations and combination of genes from our different parents.
fertilization

26. c. Geographic Isolation-
b. natural selection: nature has selected the fittest organisms in the following instances:
~insects that are resistant to pesticides (are fit enough to survive and reproduce)
~bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics (are fit enough to survive and reproduce). You’ve all probably been on antibiotics and have noticed that you’ve taken different brands. That’s because the bacteria build up a resistance to the old antibiotics.
c. Geographic Isolation-
~small population becomes isolated (mountain range, body of water, Pangea)
~they adapt to their new environment and become so different that they can no longer interbreed with the original population
~this inability to breed with the original population is called
________________________________
~over time , this leads to speciation:_____________________________
ex). Darwin’s finches on the Galapagos Islands
reproductive isolation
the development of a new species

27. Rate of Change- there are 2 different theories on how long it takes for evolution to occur:
1. Gradualism- evolution occurs gradually, slowly and continuously
2. Punctuated Equilibrium- when species have long periods of stability and then have sudden, brief intervals of major change.
Gradualism
PunctuatedEquilibrium

28. The Heterotroph Hypothesis...how did life begin on earth???
primitive inorganic materials
conditions “hot, thin soup”:
gases: -NH3 (ammonia)
-CH4 (methane)
-H2 (hydrogen)
sun and lightning provided the ENERGY needed to
SYNTHESIZE materials
small organic molecules formed (sugars, amino acids)
Stanley Miller reproduced this theory in his lab
sun, lightning and energy=
SYNTHESIS

29. Video clip, S. Miller’s expt
15 mins
****

30. large organic molecules were formed (proteins, carbs)
Sidney Fox reproduced this theory in his lab
large molecules clumped together
aggregates (colonies) were now present
These were heterotrophic (no CO2 available)
they reproduced!
these aggregates are now considered ALIVE
BECAUSE THEY CAN REPRODUCE
no free oxygen
these heterotrophs were anaerobic
heterotrophs produced CO during respiration/fermentation
photosynthesis now possible

31. autotrophs evolved
produced oxygen
aerobes evolved

32. Quick Summary Heterotrophs CO2 given off autotrophs aerobes anaer.
resp
photo-
synthesis O2
produced

33. (fossils, comparisons)
you cannot inherit acquired characteristics
(simpler)
(mutation & crossing-over)
survival of the fittest

34. An increase in biodiversity increases the stability of an environment
Pine bush, rainforest
An increase in biodiversity increases the stability of an environment

39. evolution fossils homologous vestigial Darwin Lamarck speciation
comparative biochem
homologous
vestigial
Darwin
Lamarck
speciation
gradualism
punctuated
equil.
reproductive
geographic
spontaneous
generation
Origin of life
aggregate O2
photosyn
They were anaerobic
respiration or ferm
sun,
lightning,
radiation

40. The Unity and Diversity of Living Things
Notes:
The Unity and Diversity of Living Things
All living things have the potential to carry out life functions. This is one fact that unites living things.
But, living things are not the same. There are billions of different living things. How do we tell them apart? How do we keep them organized?

41. Biological Diversity (don’t put in notes)
Edward Wilson, 1999
The total # of kinds of plants, animals and microorganisms known to science (those which have a scientific name) is about 1.4 million. But, the actual # is estimated to be between 10 and 80 million. “We don’t know even to the nearest, the amount of diversity in the world.”
Out of the 1.4 million named organisms, there are approximately
750,000 insects
242,428 plants
123,151 arthropods
46,983 fungi
19,056 fish
9,048 birds
4,000 mammals

42. Humanity is creating a radical new environment too quickly to allow species to adjust. Species need thousands of years (maybe millions) to assemble complex genetic adaptations. Most of life is consequently at risk (of extinction)”
……this is why human impact is directly related to the environment.
Now, back to notes….

43. The Diversity of Life
In order to study the billions of living organisms, scientists need to have an organized system: a classification system.
Taxonomy is the branch of Biology that studies classification.
Hundreds of years ago, scientists classified living organisms into 2 groups called kingdoms.
Plant
Animal
But, they kept discovering organisms (ex. mushrooms) that didn’t fit into either kingdom.
Today, we use a 5 kingdom classification system:
1. Monera
2. Protista
3. Fungi
4. Plant
5. Animal

44. (hint: species~specific)
But, even these groups are too broad to have an organized system so the kingdoms are broken down into smaller & smaller groups:
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Broadest, largest group
Smallest, most specific
(hint: species~specific)
How do we place organisms in the proper K,P,C,O,F,G,S?
We examine them and group them according to the following:

46. 1. evolutionary relationships (did they come from the same ancestor?)
2. the presence (eukaryotic) or absence (prokaryotic) of a
nuclear membrane within the cell.
3. unicellular or multicellular?
4. type of nutrition (heterotrophic or autotrophic)

47. most primitive kingdom lacks a nuclear membrane (prokaryotic)
Kingdom Characteristics Examples
Monera
Protista
most primitive kingdom
lacks a nuclear membrane
(prokaryotic)
some organelles
bacteria
blue green algae
mostly unicellular
eukaryotic
a. protozoa
b. algae
heterotrophic
paramecium
ameba
autotrophic
spirogyra

48. Kingdom Characteristics Examples
Fungi
Plants
mushroom
yeast
bread mold
athlete’s foot fungus
Eukaryotic
Multicellular
Have branched filaments called rhizoids (like roots) that secrete digestive enzymes into the surface that the fungi is on. The fungi then absorb the digested material
heterotrophic
see next slide
multicellular
photosynthetic
autotrophic
Bryophytes
lack vascular tissue (xylem, phloem)
have no true roots, stems, leaves
moss
b. Tracheophytes
fern
water lily
sycamore tree
do have vascular tissue and true
roots, stems, leaves

50. sponges pores hydra jellyfish planaria tapeworm liver fluke flatworms
hollow body cavity
2 cell layers
planaria
tapeworm
liver fluke
flatworms
round worms
parasitic
trichina
hookworm
heartworm
segmented worms
earthworm
leech

51. jointed appendages 2 shells clams, oysters soft-bodied 1 shell: snail
no shell: slug, octopus, squid
lobster, crab, shrimp
exoskeleton (chitin)
centipedes: 60 legs
millipedes : 600 legs
jointed appendages
spiders, scorpions
bees, beetles, cockroaches
starfish
sea cucumber
brittle star
sea urchin
spiny skinned
many including:
reptiles
birds
mammals
endoskeleton
dorsal nerve cord

52. eukaryote………………………………………..
prokaryote
eukaryote………………………………………..
hetero but
chemosyn in archaebact
hetero
auto
hetero
auto
hetero no no
yes no
yes no
uni/
colony
uni
uni
multi
multi
multi
bacteria,
blue-green
algae
ameba,
paramecium
mushroom
bread mold
fern
tree
human
dog
spirogyra

53. Scientific Naming
There is a naming system called binomial nomenclature
two name
naming system
Just like we all have a first and a last name, so do organisms.
Scientists refer to organisms by their genus (1st name) and species (2nd name)
Ex). Felis domesticus = common house cat
genus species

54. Rules for using scientific names:
1. Genus is always capitalized
2. Species is always lower case
3. Both words are either underlined or italicized
Note: a species is defined as a group of organisms that can mate and produce
fertile offspring G s

55. 3 7 11 2 10 8 9 4 6 5 1

56. coccus
Diplococcus pneumonia
Bacillus tetani
Bacillus botulinum
Bacillus anthracis
strep
Bacillus
diplo
Organizes by structure, shape, arrangement

57. Dipteron cyclops
Podus biantennae
Helikopteron bacillus
Podus anoculus
Dipteron polyoculus
Podus monoantennae
Sessilis terretris
Podus triantennae
Podus cyclops
Helikopteron coccus
Sessilis aquatilis