The Hollywood Studio System

The Hollywood Studio System

Hollywood Studio System
Hollywood not just a location but a set of industrial and artistic practices that have dominated film production. Not only in North America but globally.

Why Hollywood? Climate and natural light? - Yes but also the relatively short distance from Mexican border, handy for escaping Edison’s agents. Primitive cinema marked by patent wars, litigation. Main players: Thomas Edison and The Biograph Company

France was leading film producer in early years; Germany, Italy, UK also important.
But World War One changed that – from 1916 USA became the world leader in film production and has remained that way until present.

India has more films produced and bigger audience: USA greatest value
Year Admissions (Millions) Value ($US Millions) 1. India 2006 3,997.00 1,600.00 2. US 2007 1,400.00 9,629.00 3. France 177.52 1,472.06 4. China (PRC) 176.20 455.00 5. Mexico 174.20 596.00 6. Japan 163.20 1,675.00 7. UK 162.43 1,642.00 8. South Korea 158.80 1,075.84 9. Germany 125.40 1,051.92 10. Italy 120.00 938.35 11. Spain 116.90 881.78

Pioneers (1) Thomas Ince
1911 – Introduces assembly line production Separation of planning and Production. A minute division of labour in film making factories – departments with separate functions. Bureaucratic pyramid – “central producer system”. Producers supervised everything – gave jobs out etc.

Pioneers (2) D.W Griffiths
Worked with Biograph Pictures Famous for huge extravaganzas Required large sets, casts, costumes etc Management Labour Division Team work and specialist areas Studio Factories. Biograph first company to make film in Hollywood “In Old California” (1910)

Pioneers (3) Max Sennet Ince and Griffiths partnered with Sennet in 1915 to form Triangle Motion Picture Company. (Griffiths parted from Biograph as they had little faith in the future of feature film) Sennet “the King of Comedy” The innovator of slapstick.

Pioneers cont In 1915 Griffiths produced and directed “The Clansman” (later called “The Birth of a Nation”) which was one of the most innovative of American films. Set during and after the American Civil War, noted for its innovative technical and narrative achievements, its status as the first Hollywood “blockbuster”. Blacked up actors! However, provoked great controversy for its treatment of white supremacy and sympathetic account of the rise of the Ku Klux Klan.

In 1919, founded United Artists (one of the “Little Three” studios) together with:
Douglas Fairbanks Mary Pickford Charles Chaplin But Griffith’s association with UA didn’t last long.

The Studio System In the 1920s ‘motion pictures’ became the most popular form of entertainment and leisure activity in America. As Wall Street invested heavily in film, five major Hollywood studios and three smaller ones consolidated power to dominate the world market.

The Three Elements Production – The making of the films
Distribution – The network that brought the films to the public – promotion, run times Exhibition – The “Big Five” initially owned their own theatres

The Development – 1920s The main film companies move from East Coast to Hollywood Self-Regulation and Production Codes “industrialisation” of production

Introduction of Sound Al Jolson The Jazz Singer, 1927
The consolidation of sound ushered in “classic” period (aka “Golden Age”) of Hollywood Roughly

Financing Hollywood during its Golden Age between the years of 1927 – 1948 operated a mode of production called the studio system. The studio system was an early form of “vertical integration” i.e. All stages of production including screenplays, financing, production, post production, distribution and exhibition were owned and controlled by the studios to maximise their profits. 1927 – the Jazz Singer 1948 – Legal decision by the justice department - impact

Distribution & Exhibition
Affiliated cinema chains ranged from 200- to 1500 “theatres” in size – accounting for 20% of total US cinemas. However – these cinemas accounted for 80% of 1st run houses and the most profitable subsequent run houses (generally located in major metropolitan areas). Thus – these cinemas accounted for 50% – 80% of the Box Office in any given market

The only means of distribution and exhibiting a film was through theatrical release (cinema exhibition) The Big Five showcased their best films in studio-owned picture palaces To gain access to the most popular films, small local cinemas had to buy exclusive-run deals from the studio This block booking meant studios could push out the competition B movies too

Exhibition Only in largest cities did majors’ theatres compete directly. Elsewhere they pooled their product for nationwide distribution. Thus one company’s hit benefited all theatres. Production and distribution were only important to the extent they enabled the majors to maintain favoured status in exhibition

The Majors owned substantial theatre (cinema) chains The Majors raised the cash to acquire these chains through the public sale of bonds and stocks pre 1929 taking on long term debt This is reflected in presence of investment bankers, businessmen etc. on Motion Picture Company

Therefore: “…The production of films, essentially fluid and experimental as a process, is harnessed to a form of organisation which can rarely afford to be either experimental or speculative because of the regularity with which heavy fixed changes (debt) must be made.” Economic Control of the Motion Picture Industry”, Moe Huettig (1944)

Production Practice The Hollywood studio system of film-making to type as genres with stars in the leading roles standardised the filmmaking process All film personnel from director to creative, technical crew to actors were employees of the studio e.g. actors had a standard 7 year contract; could be fined for refusing a part; could be loaned out to another studio without their consent Production line idea Permanent employees

Production Practice Each studio had a uniform style and specialised in a particular genre Exceptions to the rules were directors such as Alfred Hitchcock, John Ford and Orson Welles who fought to work within the system and establish their own styles

“The Big Five” + “Little Three” = “The Majors”
The studios The Big Five The little Three “Poverty Row” (top four of many) MGM United Artists Grand National Paramount Columbia Pictures Republic Pictures 20th Century-Fox Universal Studios Monogram Pictures Warner Bros PRC RKO “The Big Five” + “Little Three” = “The Majors”

Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM)
Established in 1924 from parent company Loew’s Inc (owner of many cinemas) Leader in stars and glamour - Gone with the Wind and The Wizard of Oz (both 1939) Hired top talent directors such as King Vidor, Clarence Brown, Erich von Stroheim, Tod Browning. Stars included Clark Gable, Jean Harlow, Robert Montgomery, Myrna Loy, Jeanette MacDonald, Nelson Eddy, Judy Garland and Spencer Tracey

Paramount Established as distribution company in 1914; acquired by Zukor in 1917, who merges it with his production company First “vertically integrated” company Stars included: Marlene Dietrich, Mary Pickford, Bing Cosby, Mae West, Gary Cooper, Claudette Colbert, the Marx Brothers, Dorothy Lamour, Carole Lombard, Bob Hope, Alan Ladd, Veronica Lake, Paulette Goddard

Fox (Later 20th Century Fox)
Established in 1913 by William Fox Known for musicals, westerns and bipics During WW2, was third most profitable studio Directors included John Ford Stars included: Shirley Temple, Marlon Brando, Marilyn Monroe, Spencer Tracy, Betty Grable

Warner Brothers Established in 1924 by Harry, Jack and Albert Warner
1st Sound film – The Jazz Singer (1927) – profits allowed WB to acquire theatre chain and graduate from poverty row to major status Musicals, gangster films Stars included: Bette Davis, James Cagney, Joan Blondell, Edward G Robinson, Warner William and Barbara Stanwyck

RKO Unit production – contracting to directors. Gave Orson Welles – then a man of the theatre and radio, never having made a film – complete control- unprecedented for Hollywood Studios – to direct and star in Citizen Kane (1941) Born from merger in 1928 Stars included: Lucille Ball, Fay Wray, Cary Grant and Katherine Hepburn Went out of business in 1957/58 King Kong, Bringing Up Baby

The Little Three The Big Five dominated the market but how do we account for the success of the “Little Three” – Universal, Columbia and UA – with very few cinemas? Answer – No one studio had the capacity to produce sufficient films to hill its subsequent run theatres which needed up to 300 films per annum. The little three filled this gap. Columbia and Universal also made many B-pics for the low end of the market. UA was purely a distributor for small groups of elite independent producers.

United Artists Founded by silent film stars Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks in 1919 – married in 1920 and produced films at their studio on Santa Monica Boulevard in Hollywood. Charles Chaplin and DW Griffiths (briefly) became involved, each of 4 owning 20% state Functioned primarily as a backer-distributor, loaning money to independent producers and releasing their films Now part of MGM

Columbia Founded in 1919 by brothers Jack and Harry Cohn and Joe Brandt Released its first feature film in August it adopted the Columbia Pictures name in 1924 and went public two years later. Columbia began to grow in the late 1920s, spurred by a successful association with director Frank Capra. Became one of the primary homes of the “screwball comedy”. Major contract stars: Jean Arthur and Cary Grant (shared with RKO Pictures). In the 1940s Rosalind Russell, Rita Hayworth, Glenn Ford and William Holden Now part of Columbia Tri-Star (owned by Sony) Now owned by sony

Universal Founded by, Carl Laemmle, second oldest Hollywood studio. In 30s/40s, largely run by Irving Thalberg but lured to MGM, leading to downturn in Universal’s fortunes Sought an audience mostly in small towns, producing mostly inexpensive melodramas, westerns and serials Films include All Quiet on the Western Front and Imitation of Life. Created a successful niche with long-running series of monster films, inc. Frankenstein, Dracula, and The Mummy.

The Star System Essential element of studio system
The star system allowed the Hollywood studios to “manufacture” the success of young actors and new films. One of the key means studio used to attract audiences Studios would select promising young actors and create personas for them, often inventing new names and even new backgrounds. Studios and stars began to specialise in particular styles, genres and roles.

The Star System In early years of the cinema, performers not identified in films. Two main reasons: Stage performers embarrassed to be in film. Silent film was only considered pantomime, only a step above carnivals and freak shows, and actors afraid that appearing in films would ruin their reputation. Producers feared that actors would gain more prestige and power and demand more money.

The Star System Main catalyst for change – public’s desire to know the actors’ names. Film audiences repeatedly recognised certain performers that they liked. Not knowing performers’ names they gave them nicknames (such as “the Biography Girl”, Florence Lawrence, who was featured in Biography films). Florence Lawrence ( )

The Star System Relatively unknown actors would be groomed for stardom, given new names, personas and lifestyles that would create positive publicity for the industry. In return, actors were subject to restrictive contracts of up to seven years, with relatively small salaries and few holidays between films James Stewart and Cary Grant were two of the very few to be independent of studios Star system part of the process which allowed each studio to put out more than 500 films a year.

The Star System Humphrey Bogart (1889-1956) Trade Mark
Typically played smart, playful, courageous, tough, occasionally reckless characters who lived in a corrupt world, anchored by a hidden moral code. Almost always played a hard-boiled cynic who ultimately shows his noble side. Low-key, distinctive nasal voice. Often wore bow ties. Roles in film noirs. Made 77 films from

The Star System Fred Astaire (1899-1987) Trade Mark Top Hat and Tails.
His dancing 49 films from Birth Name Frederic Austerlitz Jr.

The Star System Birth Name James Francis Cagney Trade Mark
Famous for his gangster roles he played in the 1930s and 1940s (which made his only Oscar win as the musical composer/dancer/actor George M.Cohan most ironic). Made 66 films from James Cagney ( )

The Star System His family moved to Hollywood in 1931, and Tracy made 16 films in three years. In 1935 he signed with MGM. He became the first actor to win back-to-back Oscars. A few weeks after completion of Guess Who’s Coming to Dinner (1967), during which he suffered from lung congestion, he died of a heart attack. Made 78 films from Spencer Tracy ( )

The Star System Birth Name William Clark Gable Trade Mark
Pencil thin moustache that hugged his upper lip Often played a virile, lovable rogue whose gruff facade only thinly masked a natural charm and goodness. Distinctive, powerful voice. 81 films from Clark Gable ( )

The Star System Cary Grant 1904-1986 Birth Name
Archibald Alexander Leach Trade Mark Mid-Atlantic accent. Often played a handsome bachelor. Roles in romantic comedies. Once told by an interviewer, "Everybody would like to be Cary Grant," Grant is said to have replied, "So would I." Made 73 films from

The Star System Joan Crawford Birth Name 1905-1977 Lucille Fay LeSueur
She was so dedicated to her fans that she always personally responded to her fan mail by typing them responses on blue paper and autographing it. A great deal of her spare time and weekends were spent doing this. After her friend Steven Spielberg hit it big, Joan sent him periodic notes of congratulations. The last one came two weeks before her death. Made 102 films or TV appearances from

The Star System Rita Hayworth (1918-1987) Birth Name
Margarita Carmen Cansino Ranked #98 in Empire (UK) magazine's "The Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time" list. [October 1997] Made 66 films from

The Star System John Wayne 1907-1979 Birth Name Marion Robert Morrison
Trade Mark Westerns. Slow talk and deep voice. War movies. Made 171 films from

The Star System Katherine Hepburn 1907-2003 Birth Name
Katharine Houghton Hepburn Trade Mark Playing strong independent women with minds of their own. Often wore slacks instead of dresses, decades before it became fashionable for women to do so Distinctive way of speaking, with what many say is a "Bryn Mawr" accent. Made 52 films from

The Star System James “Jimmy” Stewart 1908-1997 Birth Name
James Maitland Stewart Trade Mark Soft-spoken, extremely polite and shy manner, with a very recognizable drawl in his voice. Often played honest, average middle class individuals who are unwittingly drawn into some kind of crisis. Roles in westerns. After 1950 he often played tough, cynical and frequently ruthless characters. Made 99 films from

The Star System Bette Davis Birth Name 1908-1989 Ruth Elizabeth Davis
Salary Wicked Stepmother $250,000 Right of Way (1983) $250,000 Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964)$200,000 Where Love Has Gone $125,000 What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1962)$60, % of the net profits. All About Eve (1950)$130,000 Juarez (1939)$4,000/week Dark Victory (1939)$3,500/week Made 121 films from

The Star System Birth Name Virginia Katherine McMath
Made 89 film and television appearances from Trade Mark Often starred with Fred Astaire Ginger Rogers ( )

The Star System Gene Kelly (1912-1996) Birth Name Eugene Curran Kelly
Trade Mark Known for his innovative, athletic style of dancing “If Fred Astaire is the Cary Grant of dance, I'm the Marlon Brando.” Made 49 films from

The Star System Trade Mark A killer smile, which he called "The Grin"
A great physique, of which director John Frankenheimer said, "Nobody ever looked like Burt Lancaster in The Crimson Pirate (1952) ." His movies often reflected his very liberal political beliefs. Roles in westerns. Very distinctive, clipped manner of speaking. Made 86 films from Burt Lancaster ( ) Birth Name Burton Stephen Lancaster

The Star System Trade Mark Gravelly voice Dimpled chin
Made 90 films from December 9, 2006] My name is Kirk Douglas. You may know me. If you don't Google me. I was a movie star and I'm Michael Douglas' dad, Catherine Zeta-Jones' father-in-law, and the grandparents of their two children. Today I celebrate my 90th birthday. I have a message to convey to America's young people. A 90th birthday is special. In my case, this birthday is not only special but miraculous. I survived World War II, a helicopter crash, a stroke, and two new knees. It's a tradition that when a "birthday boy" stands over his cake he makes a silent wish for his life and then blows out the candles. I have followed that tradition for 89 years but on my 90th birthday, I have decided to rebel. Instead of making a silent wish for myself, I want to make a loud wish for The World. Let's face it: The World is in a mess and you are inheriting it. Generation Y, you are on the cusp. You are the group facing many problems: abject poverty, global warming, genocide, AIDS and suicide bombers, to name a few. These problems exist and the world is silent. We have done very little to solve these problems. Now we leave it to you. You have to fix it because the situation is intolerable. You need to rebel, to speak up, write, vote, and care about people and the world you live in. We live in the best country in the world. I know. My parents were Russian immigrants. America is a country where EVERYONE, regardless of race, creed, or age has a chance. I had that chance. You are the generation that is most impacted and the generation that can make a difference. I love this country because I came from a life of poverty. I was able to work my way through college and go into acting, the field that I love. There is no guarantee in this country that you will be successful. But you always have a chance. Nothing should interfere with it. You have to make sure that nothing stands in the way. When I blow out my candles - 90! it will take a long time but I'll be thinking of you. Kirk Douglas ( ) Birth Name Issur Danielovitch Demsky

The Star System Birth Name Ernestine Jane Geraldine Russell
Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953)$400,000 The Outlaw (1943)$50 a week Made 29 films from Jane Russell ( )

The Star System Salary Gay Purr-ee (1962)$50, % gross Judgment at Nuremberg (1961)$50,000 A Star Is Born (1954)$100, % of profits Summer Stock (1950)$150,000 Words and Music (1948)$100,000 Easter Parade (1948)$150,000 The Pirate (1948)$150,000 The Harvey Girls (1946)$3,000/week Girl Crazy (1943)$29,000 For Me and My Gal (1942)$2,000/week Babes on Broadway (1941)$2,000/week Strike Up the Band (1940)$500/week Babes in Arms (1939)$8,900 The Wizard of Oz (1939)$500/week Listen, Darling (1938)$500/week Love Finds Andy Hardy (1938)$300/week Thoroughbreds Don't Cry (1937)$300/week Broadway Melody of 1938 (1937)$200/week Every Sunday (1936)$100/week Judy Garland ( ) Birth Name Frances Ethel Gumm Made 32 films from

The Star System Marlon Brando (1924-2004) Birth Name Marlon Brando Jr.
Made 45 film and TV productions from Trade Mark Bizarrely unique voice with an extreme nasal tonality spoken in mumbles. Frequently played young, somewhat misunderstood rebels in his youth (A Streetcar Named Desire, The Wild One, On the Waterfront) and later powerful criminals (The Godfather, The Formula, The Freshman, The Score). The pioneering use of Method Acting Often improvised his own dialogue.

The Star System Tony Curtis (1925 - ) Birth Name Bernard Schwartz
Salary The Boston Strangler $30,000/week Operation Petticoat (1959)$700,000 The Vikings (1958)$25,000/week Trapeze (1956)$150,000 Forbidden (1953)$1,500/week The All American (1953)$1,500/week Houdini (1953)$1,500/week Flesh and Fury (1952)$700/week Kansas Raiders (1950)$225/week Criss Cross (1949)$75/week Made 128 film and TV productions from

The Star System Rock Hudson (1925-1985) Birth Name
Roy Harold Scherer Jr. His size and good looks got him into movies. His name was changed to Rock Hudson, his teeth were capped, he took lessons in acting, singing, fencing and riding He was the first major public figure to announce he had AIDS, and his worldwide search for a cure drew international attention. Trade Mark Deep, sensuous voice. Thick black hair. Moved from westerns to sob stories to sophisticated comedies. Made 74 film and television productions from

The Star System Appeared on the first cover of Playboy in 1953.
Trade Mark Lisp, breathless voice Platinum blonde hair Voluptuous figure. Made 33 films from Voted 'Sexiest Woman of the Century' by People Magazine. [1999] Aside from her birth name of Norma Jean Mortensen, she was baptized and mainly known throughout her life as Norma Jeane Baker. The licensing of Marilyn's name and likeness, handled world-wide by Curtis Management Group, reportedly nets the Monroe estate about $2 million a year. Marilyn Monroe ( ) Birth Name Norma Jean Mortensen

The Hay’s Code During the 1920s, Will H. Hays was made president of MPAA (The Motion Picture Association of America). His job was to protect films from state censorship boards. In 1930, a Production Code was established setting guidelines for what would and could not be shown – no nudity, no profanity, no offensive refs, no “miscegenation” i.e. relationships between people of different races. Tightened up by 1934 Pre1934 more risque

The Production Code’s Effects: Films as Ideological Frames
Scripts were screened according to the Code, but by 1933 many standards relaxed. In 1934, Hays set up the PCA (Production Code Administration) which would place a seal on “approved films”: only these could be released. General effect – to make films more conventional, closer to the social mainstream, more middle-class, less adventurous

“1. No picture shall be produced that will lower the moral standards of those who see it. Hence the sympathy of the audience should never be thrown to the side of crime, wrongdoing, evil or sin. 2. Correct standards of life, subject only to the requirements of drama and entertainment, shall be presented. 3. Law, natural or human, shall not be ridiculed, nor shall sympathy be created for its violation.”

The sanctity of marriage and the home had to be upheld. “Pictures shall not imply that low forms of sex relationship are the acceptable or common thing …” Portrayals of miscegenation (inter-racial relationships) were forbidden … “Scenes of Passion” were not to be introduced when not essential to the plot. “Excessive and lustful kissing” was to be avoided, along with any other treatment that might “stimulate the lower and baser element…”

Film genres affected included women’s pictures (from “fallen woman” to women’s concerns – e.g. family and marriage) and comedies (e.g. cross-class romances)

Hollywood Style “Hollywood” – not only a set of industrial practices but a particular way of telling stories, especially with regard to Narrative Editing

Hollywood Conventions
The classical Hollywood narrative organised around one or more goal-driven protagonists whose desires determine the cause-effect ordering of the plot Often a second, embedded plot line – e.g. saving the western town from the outlaws may also involve helping out and finally falling in love with the school marm, for instance. Moreover, the time and space serve the story, which is often generic or formulaic There is clear closure with the protagonists achieving or failing to achieve their goals.

Hollywood Style Narrative and Narration
“Classic Hollywood narration focuses on an nindividual or small group of individuals who early on encounter discrete and specific goals that are clearly attained or clearly unattained by the film’s end. The goals tend to exist in two spheres, and their pursuit is developed along parallel and often interdependent plot lines. One sphere is private, generally a heterosexual romance; the second is public – a career advance, the obliteration of an enemy, a mission, a discovery and the like” The Classic Hollywood Cinema (1985), BY David Bordwell, Janet Stauger, and Kristin Thompson.

Hollywood Style Hollywood narrative tended to be straightforward, unambiguous Action should be in tight chain of cause and effect Even where there is narrative complexity, there should not be indeterminateness i.e. things should be explained by the end To ensure this, a high degree of “redundancy” i.e. repetition of important plot information

The Continuity Editing System
Hollywood Style The Continuity Editing System One of main ways of delivering “verisimilitude” in classic Hollywood narrative Developed from early cinema but firmly established before talking era predominant style of editing in narrative cinema and carried over into television Purpose – to smooth over the inherent discontinuity of the editing process and to establish a logical coherence between shots (“invisible editing”)

The continuity editing system
Hollywood Style The continuity editing system Main Features match on action Eyeline match The establishing shot The 180 degree rule Avoiding jump cut (i.e. two sequential shots of the same subject take from camera positions that vary only slightly) by use of Continuous diegetic sound 30%rule

Genre and Hollywood A large part of Hollywood’s output operated within established genres Genres have “semantic” elements, i.e. images, iconography we expect of a a genre’s “repertoire of elements” They also have “syntactical” – e.g. story shaped as in “rise and fall” structure of classic gangster film But genres rarely “pure” – even in classical era tended to merge and mature (but less so than in 1980s on)

Genre and Hollywood Most popular Hollywood genres Action-adventure
Biopics Comedy Detective, gangster, suspense thriller Epics and spectacles Horror, science fiction, fantasy Social problem films Musical teen pics War films Westerns Film noir Melodrama and the “woman’s film”

The end of the Golden Age
In 1948 the United States government on behalf of MGM brought a lawsuit against Paramount Pictures for blocking booking The resulting 1948 anti-trust laws in America made this practice illegal. The studios had to sell their cinema interests The result, effectively brought the studio system and Hollywood’s Golden Age to a close

Other reasons for the decline: Post-war – many couples started families (the “baby boom” Mover to suburbs and new leisure activities Cinemas tended to be in old city centres The rise of television

“Divorcement” 1948 – Paramount decree Leads to majors becoming distribution companies Studios offered finance and use of studio facilities Rise of independent producers and agents agents replace studios’ packaging function

Transition period Example The Searchers (1956) d. John Ford
Production Company owned by rich businessman CV Whitney Warner Bros shared investment and profits, distributed film but did not make it

Transition Period Little three no longer had disadvantage of not owning cinemas Made transition to new situation more easily than big five By mid 50s, studios selling back catalogue to television Making content for TV Networks

Transition to Modern Hollywood
Changing Studios During the 1980s large multi-national businesses began to include media companies in their practices of merger and acquisition As a result the major Hollywood studios have gone through many ownership changes

Changing Studios Columbia Independent until 1982 Owned by Coca-cola Independent holding of Coca Cola 1987 – 1989 Owned by Sony 1989 to present

Changing Studios Universal Independent to 1982 Merged with International Pictures Owned by Decca Owned by MCA 1962 – 1990 Owned by Matsushita electric 1990 – 1995 Owned by Seagram Owned by Vivendi (who bought Seagram) Owned by General Electric present

Changing Studios 20th Century Fox Independent to 1985 Owned by News Corporation 1985 to present News Corp has controlling interest in e.g. The times and The Sun; Sky Many media interests in US, UK, Australia, the Far East

Changing Studios Paramount Pictures Independent to 1966 Owned by gulf and Western Owned by Paramount Communications (new Gulf + Western Co) Owned by Viacom 1993 to present

Changing Studios Warner Brothers Independent to 1967 Owned by Seven Arts productions Owned by Kinney National Kinney now named Warner Communications Merger with Time Publications 1989 to present – Time Warner

Changing Studios MGM Independent to 2005 Owned by Sony (as part of its Columbia-Tri-star stable) 2005 to present

Changing Studios United Artists Chaplin and Fairbanks bought out by financiers in early 50s “Studio” without actual studio – but fewer overheads. Offered finance to independent producers Successful: The African Queen (1951) Moulin Rouge (1952) Also, the James Bond franchise (starting 1962); Beatles Hard Day’s Night (Richard Lester, 1964) Taken over by Transamerica in 1967 Sunk by Michael Cimino’s Heaven’s Gate (1978) which went enormously over budget Subsequently absorbed in MGM (now owned by Sony)

Rise of the package – unit system Studios no longer had long term exclusive contracts for creative personnel Writers, directors, producers and stars able to negotiate their deals with majors using agents Agencies not studios negotiated “creative personnel packages” with film companies

Rise of the package – unit system Principal Agencies International Creative Management Creative Artists Agency William Morris Agency

1960s – Also sees television emerge as substantial market for the studios product (and use of film for drama series) Shift of TV production from New York to Los Angels

Also beginning of blockbuster strategy Classic Hollywood had a few prestige films and runaway hits – e.g. Gone With The Wind (1939) But relied on steady stream of A films for guaranteed profits Post “Divorcement”, producing blockbusters a conscious strategy

The Ten Commandments (1956; $43 million) Around the World in 80 Days (1956; $23 million) The Bridge Over the River Kwai (1957; $47.2 million) South Pacific (1958; $17.5 million) Ben Hur (1959; $36.5 million) Lawrence of Arabia (1962; $17.7 million) The Longest Day (1962; $17.6 million) Cleopatra (1963; $23 million) Thunderball (1965; $27.5 million) Dr Zhivago (1965; $46.5 million) The Sound of Music (1965; $79.9 million)

1950s/1960s saw more segmentation of market including “drive-in movies”, exploitation films Foreign “art” films also attracting an audience Away from mainstream e.g. La Dolce Vita (Fellini, 1960) But despite enormous success of The Sound of Music 1960s saw biggest slump since WWII – cycle of expensive, heavily promoted commercial flops. Studios no longer connecting with audiences, especially the young Combined industry losses : $600 million (Variety)

Brief Period of transition to New Hollywood
The American New Wave Brief Period of transition to New Hollywood Commercial losses led to new strategy – with blockbuster strategy stalling, Hollywood saw period of widespread and unprecedented innovation With the collapse of the old studio system, producers and executives no longer had the power to control creative film-making Influence of a new wave of filmmaking from France (Nouvelle Vague), encouraged Hollywood independents to experiment and develop their own unique styles.

The American New Wave Brief Period of Transition to New Hollywood Nouvelle Vague introduced new production arrangements, new directors, new actors, new shooting styles Francois Truffaut Jacques Demy Jean-Luc Godard Claude Chabrol Alain Resnais Agnes Varda

The American New Wave Without overthrowing rules of continuity system, these directors “loosened up” the rules The Graduate (d. Mike Nichols, 1967) also showed influence of New Wave in its editing It also indicates that it is post-Hays Code (which broke down in 1967) to be replaced by modern rating system by MPAA in 1967 Catching up with changes in public attitudes

The American New Wave Flowering of American filmmaking for few years from late 60s – early 70s Studios – in desperation – financed films they did not have much sympathy for but which found youthful audience The Graduate (1967) d. Mike Nichols Five Easy Pieces (1970) d. Mike Rafaelson Easy Rider (1969) d. Dennis Hopper

The American New Wave

The American New Wave Not independents – (unlike, e.g. John Cassavetes) They relied on studio finance – but given independence by desperate studios and absorbed spirit of independents According to Peter Biskind (“Down and Dirty Pictures”), following traits characterise mainstream and independent films:

The American New Wave Hollywood Mainstream Independent
Fantasy and escapism Realism and engagement Avoided controversial subjects Embraced controversial subjects Expensive Cheap Stars Unknowns (even non-actors) Final cut for director Genre-based and formulaic Personal vision, unique and sequel-proof Made by committee Director no right of final cut Individual sensibility (often writer-director) with right of final cut

The American New Wave Hollywood Mainstream Independent
Director as craft person- for-hire Director as creator of art Spectacle, action, special effects More intimate, privileging script and mise-en-scene Avoided challenging popular tastes (preview screenings etc) Made films without audience in mind – if they found one, more likely to be niche rather than mass audience Finances cushioned by ancillary markets Not much thought to distribution Conventional wisdom and mainstream ideology Challenged both Hollywood made “movies” Indies made “films” (or Cinema)

1970s – recovery of the industry 1972 – The Godfather (Paramount) revives box office 1974 – Hollywood’s total earnings surpass post war peak (1946) for first time. New wave experimentation over by mid – 70s 1975- present – The New Hollywood

The New Hollywood Unprecedented box-office success jumpstarted Hollywood’s blockbuster mentality Effectively ended reign of smaller, idiosyncratic, stylistically adventurous films. (Coppolla’s The Conversation (1974) – one of the last) “Megapictures may have saved the major companies but they also shrank the auteur aspirations of the early 1970s” David Bordwell

The New Hollywood 1975 – Jaws establishes modern blockbuster prototype: pre-sold property Packaged by agency Saturation booked (“Frontloading”) Heavy marketing Commercial tie-ins/merchandising A summer hit Discovers new baby-boomer audience 1977 – Star Wars cements Jaws model 1978 – Jaws 2 released creating franchise

Hollywood “High Concept”
“High concept” an expression coined to describe tendency identified from 1980s (and associated in particular with Producers Don Simpson and Jerry Bruckheimer) – a kind of filmmaking dominated not only attempt to maximise box-office but film shaped to needs of wider marketing, tie-in etc.

Essence of high concept film, which can be condensed into one simple sentence that inspires marking campaigns, lures audiences, and separates success from failure at the box office Films can be expressed in terms of other films, e.g. Alien = Jaws in space Top Gun = Star Wars on earth

High concept films became fully integrated with their marketing so that a single phrases- e.g. “Just when you thought it was safe to go back in the water ..” Could sell the film to studio executives and provide copy for massive advertising campaigns single image or a theme song could instantly remind potential audience members of the film, and tie-in merchandise could generate millions of dollars in additional income.

Top Gun d. Tony Scott, 1986 Produced by Don Simpson and Jerry Bruckheimer Classic “high concept” film

Hollywood Today: Stardom
Hollywood filmmaking still dependent on the strong relationship between the hero(ine) in the film and audience identification with the hero(ine) Stars have always been important vehicles by which a film is financed and marketed

Hollywood Now: Stardom
Actors and their agents, not studios manage their own careers Actors can negotiate their own salaries often earning millions per film Some stars can “open” or “tentpole” a film, but star presence in a film cannot guarantee box office success alone

Hollywood Now: Stars Salary
Rain Man (1988)$5,800,000+% of grossPapillon (1973)$1,250,000John and Mary (1969)$425,000Midnight Cowboy (1969)$250,000The Graduate (1967)$17,000 Dustin Hoffman Birth Name Dustin Lee Hoffman Trade Mark Famous for taking a wide range of difficult roles, such as a crippled street hustler in Midnight Cowboy (1969); an actor pretending to be a woman in Tootsie (1982) and an autistic in Rain Man (1988). Has a reputation for being difficult to work with. So far has made 65 films since 1961

Hollywood Now: Stars Salary Ishtar (1987)$5,000,000
The Only Game in Town (1970)$750,000 Bonnie and Clyde (1967)$200, % gross All Fall Down (1962)$60,000 The Roman Spring of Mrs. Stone (1961)$30,000 Splendor in the Grass (1961)$15,000 29 film and TV productions since 1957 (Actor) 12 productions since 1956 (producer) 6 productions as a writer since 1975 5 productions as a director since 1978 Warren Beatty Birth Name Henry Warren Beaty

Hollywood Now: Stars Al Pacino Birth Name Alfredo James Pacino
Trade Mark Volcanic tirade, smoke-burnished voice. Frequently plays men of power and/or authority. 45 films from 1968

Hollywood Now: Stars Birth Name Robert De Niro
Robert Mario De Niro Jr. Robert De Niro Trade Mark Often played characters that were often prone to brutal violence and/or characters who were borderline psychotics. Known for method acting techniques with his characters by heavily studying their backgrounds. Actor – 80 films since 1965 Producer – 31 films since 1989

Hollywood Now: Stars Made 63 since 1977 Meryl Streep Birth Name
Mary Louise Streep Awards: Won 2 Oscars. Another 73 wins & 82 nominations Trade Mark Known for being a perfectionist when preparing for roles Known for her ability to master almost any accent.

Hollywood Now: Stars Julia Roberts Tom Cruise Birth Name
Thomas Cruise Mapother IV Actor – 35 since 1981 Producer – 15 since 1996 45 films since 1987

Hollywood Now: Stars Brad Pitt Angelina Jolie Birth Name
William Bradley Pitt Birth Name Angelina Jolie Voight Trade Mark His laugh Trade Mark Husky voice Her full lips Actor – 62 films since 1987 Producer – 17 films since 2006 Actor – 39 since 1982 Producer – 3 since 2005

Hollywood Now: Stars Nicole Kidman Birth Name Nicole Mary Kidman
Trade Mark Often plays cold, emotionally vacant characters. Actor – 54 since 1983 Producer – 4 since 2003 Bruce Willis Birth Name Walter Bruce Willis Trade Mark Frequently plays a man who suffered a tragedy, had lost something or had a crisis of confidence or conscience. Shaven head. Headlines action-adventures, often playing a cop, hitman or someone in the military.

Hollywood Now: Stars Actor – 33 since 1990 Producer – 12 since 2004
Kate Winslet Actor – 33 since 1991 Awards: Nominated for 3 Oscars. Another 20 wins & 46 nominations Awards: Won Oscar. Another 37 wins & 59 nominations Leonardo Di Caprio

Hollywood Now: Stars Tobey McGuire Birth Name Tobias Vincent Maguire
Daniel Day Lewis Trade Mark In-depth and exhaustive preparations for roles. Frequently collaborates with directors Jim Sheridan and Martin Scorsese. Daniel Day Lewis

Hollywood Now: Stars Trade Mark Highly defined cheek-bones
Frequently plays freakishly eccentric outcasts whose oddities are misunderstood by society, and usually have a flamboyant appearance and mannerism. Frequently works with director 'Tim Burton'. Frequently bases his performances on rock stars. Johnny Depp Birth Name John Christopher Depp II

Hollywood Now: Narrative in modern Hollywood
Some commentators argue that we are in a “post-classical” age, especially with regard to Narrative David Borwell and Kirsten Thomson, however, highlight the essential continuity between Classic Hollywood Narrative and the present period, while accepting there have been stylistic shifts

Hollywood Style Hollywood narrative became more self-conscious from 70s/80s Classic era screenwriters aware of structure but rarely codified More recently, large number of how-to books on screenwriting, seminars etc “Screenwriter’s Handbook” by Nash and Oakley (1978) “Screenplay” by Syd Field (1979)

Hollywood Style: Narrative
Screen-writing manuals tended to identify a three act structure in classic Hollywood film e.g. Syd Field (assumes 2 hour film script of 120 minutes, one page = one minute if screen time) The Set up: 30 pages – plot point A The Conflict: 60 pages – plot point B The Resolution – final act- 30 pages where problem established by plot point A is resolved.

Kirstin Thompson argues that a four-act structure is more useful, being more solidly based on character motivation, i.e. structured around ways in which goals defined Based on four more or less equal parts plus epilogue (based on typical 110/120 minute film) The setup – mins Complicating action – mins Development – 20 – 30 mins Climax

The Setup Establishes characters’ world, defines main character’s purpose, culminates in near 30minute mark E.g. Who’s Afraid of Virginia Wolf (d. Mike Nicols, 1966) opens by presenting central couple and introduces younger couple as their guests About 30mins in Martha’s goal of torturing George crystallizes and she changes into sexy outfit to seduce younger male

II. Complicating Action Focuses/recast film’s central goals Protagonist changes tactics of achieving goal or faces entirely new situation At first turning point in Witness (d. Peter Weir), boy Samuel identifies killer, but this action precipitates attempt on book’s life, in complicating action, book flees to Amish farm where he must adjust to very different circumstances

II. Complicating Action (cont) Often event ending complicating action arrives half way through film. Kramer v Kramer, complicating action consists of Ted and Billy’s accommodation to each other in film’s second section “countersetup” - formation of new family- disturbed by Joanna’s demand to take Billy back Occurs at mid-point: 50 minutes

III. Development Where protagonist’s struggle towards goals typically occurs, often involving many incidents that create action suspense and delay Often shows protagonist making little progress towards main goals Development serves to postpone main action and to present delays or dwell on subplots, montage sequences, comedy interludes etc fills out this act

IV Climax Often following “darkest moment” (scene in which crisis forces protagonist to take action) section revolves around whether or not protagonists’ goals can be achieved (mostly they will be) Flashback- Alex mist revaluate life after mentor Hanna dies and after Jenny becomes stripper, Nick has pulled strings so that Alex gets audition to ballet school and now she must choose one path or another. Decides not to use acrobatic show-dancing skills on judges, and wins admission

V Epilogue Confirms stability of narrative Settles sub-plots and tying up motifs Can be v. brief – last 50 seconds of Flashdance shows Alex running out of her audition to meet Nick at kerbside with her dog Lord of the Rings: Return of the King must wrap up three feature-length films – lasts about 11 minutes

Hollywood Style According to David Bordwell:
“the new screenplay manuals’ reliance on act structure, page counts, character arcs and the mythic journey did not overturn the Classic Hollywood dramaturgy. Rather, these procedures filled it in, fine-tuned it, left less to trial and error” (2006)

Hollywood Now: Some Conclusions
Distribution & Exhibition Film revenue is no longer solely dependent on box office receipts The increasing importance of distributing films through many windows is now what secures as film’s financial success From 1950 to mid 1970s, the film majors exploited the popularity of television selling films to networks and syndicates

Hollywood Now: Distribution and Exhibition
In 1975, the introduction of Time Inc Home Box Office TV and Sony’s Betamax VCR provided the film industry with new outlets for their products Video, DVD, television, cable, satellite, internet and digital channels are new “alternative distribution windows”

Hollywood Now: Typical Distribution Sequence
Initial theatrical release of six months DVD window for an indefinite period – many of the majors now have own DVD labels and rental companies so they do not need to sell video rights to another company Pay/ subscription/ digital television window for approximately one year Terrestrial television window

Hollywood Now: Distribution and Exhibition
Today a major financier-distributor stands between the producer and the exhibitor For most part the distributor dictates the terms of its deal with the exhibitor as well: the nature of the run, the length of the engagement, the advertising to be employed and the financial split of box-office receipts between various parties

Hollywood Now The six Hollywood majors – each owned by large media- effectively dominate international film industry. Individual studios involved in fierce competition with each other – but outside USA and in courts etc they stick closely together. Hollywood is in effect the MPAA, controlled by the six majors.

Hollywood Now Customs and Practices
self-censorship through MPAA certification of films General agreement on average budget for mainstream film ($70 million + $30 million for marketing and P&A) (“print and advertising”) Importance of script development Use of test screenings and audience feedback before release Maintenance of technical quality through professional bodies Industry awards such as the Oscars to confirm “standards”

Hollywood Now Hollywood operates an “oligopoly” – a market controlled by group of powerful organisations. Cost of entry to market very high – each studio spends $1 billion + on “slate” of films. NO guarantee they will make money – have enough resources to sustain losses in one year and make back losses in next. Corporations also have range of other media products generating income at same time.

Hollywood Now Institutional features of mainstream studio film
major stars Stars usually more important than director Big promotional campaign Wide distribution Clear story structure Recognisable genre elements (even if “generic hybrids”) Targets all or most audience groups

The Hollywood Studio System

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