1. 3. The Research Process

2. for a critique see Ragin 1997: 14-17)
a) A linear model
„The scientific method“
(Hoover/Donovan 2008: 29)
for a critique see Ragin 1997: )
Identify variables
Construct hypothesis (relation between variables)
Reality test (measuring variables)
Evaluation (compare hypothesis and empirical result) and generalisation
Suggestions (relevance of finding, possible distortions etc.)

3. b) A circular model
Inductive-deductive cycle (McIntyre 2005: 35)

5. c.) Ragin‘s model

6. Ideas/Theory Making sense of (the diversity of phenomena) social life
Applying general ideas to social phenomena and relate them to each other (impose some form of order)
may come from everywhere (everyday life, a novel, an observation, a conversation etc.)
In social science, abstract knowledge about social life is called “social theory”
There is a pool of ideas about social reality that is constantly made and remade (good ideas are passed on from generation to generation)

7. Evidence/Data All facets and features of social life offer evidence
The empirical world is limitless in detail and complexity
Social research thus involves a selection of evidence
Selection is biased, it can be contested
Selection quite often is theory/ideas driven

8. Dialogue of Ideas and Evidence
Analysis: “breaking up phenomena into their constituent parts” (Ragin 1994: 55)
- mostly deductive: starting from theory in order to classify and characterise social life
Synthesis: “putting pieces together to make sense of them” (Ragin 1994: 56)
- mostly inductive: starting from social life, trying to see order and regularities (but often looking at parts of social life defined by analytical frames)

9. Analytic Frames Are derived from social theories
Constitute ways of seeing / looking at evidence – i.e. the perspective
Define a category of phenomena and provide conceptual tools for differentiating phenomena within the category

10. Framing by case Answers the question: What is this a case of?
Classification (put object of investigation into a class of similar cases)
Examples:
Yugoslavia under Tito
As a communist regime
As a succesful containment of ethnic conflict
The American Civil War
Military conflict between civilians
Battle over slavery
Conflict about state rights
The answer to this question (framing by case), determines the internal framing (framing by aspect)

11. Framing by aspect Characterisation of your case
Systematic account of major feature of your case (and other cases in the category)
Example: succesful containment of ethnic conflict
Strategies to contain ethnic conflict
Resource redistribution
Divide and rule
Number of ethnic minorities
Relative position (politicial/economic) of majority vis-à-vis minorities
Nature of political competition
one-party state
Multi-party system
Indicates how cases within a category vary
Helps to see aspects present and absent

12. Images
“… are the product of the effort to bring coherence to data” (Ragin 1994: 68)
… are constructed when evidence is brought together in a meaningful way
“… are formed from evidence […] summarize it, and relate it back to the ideas that first motivated the collection of evidence
Images do not always correspond with the initial analytical frame, they may challenge it (lead to revision)

13. Images (2) … are idealizations/generalizations … embody explanations
We abstract from information about empirical cases
Ex: Ghetto (idealtype)
… embody explanations
Ex: Image of “Exodus” (collective wilful abandonment explains ghetto)
… are guides to further research
Images may change analytic frames
Image may pose new questions

14. Retroduction
Interaction between images and frames (between induction and deduction)
Retroduction in imaging:
evidence that build the image is usually defined as relevant by ideas and analytic frames
Retroduction in framing:
F. is based on vast body of systematized evidence (not possible without prior knowledge of evidence and making sense out of it)
Retroduction proper:
Theory (abstract, general, vague) → analytic frames (but no one-to-one expression). Images may help to
- clarify and refine initial framing
- reject initial framing

15. Representations
Dialogue of ideas and evidence (via frames and images) culminates in representations of social life
Representation as a framed image (analogy: photograph)
Representations are finished products (but products of a long process in which frames and images are created and recreated)
Representations usually entail some kind of explanation
Forms of representation:
monographs, journal articles, textbooks, lecture, newspaper article etc.

16. Process and Strategies of Social Research
Frame and image interact differently in different research projects
Fixed frames: theoretically derived hypothesis is implemented in analytical frame (no change of frame during research process)
Theory testing
Also: making predictions, identifying broad patterns
quantitative research
Ex: Rational Choice Voting
Category: Voters
Aspects: educational level, occupation etc. (correlation to voting behaviour expected)
Directly translated into data collection and analysis

17. Process and Strategies of Social Research (2)
Flexible frames: shows researcher where to look (which aspects to look at) without being to specific (as to possible causal relations)
Evidence based images are used to refine the frame
Goal: exploring diversity
Common in comparative research
Ex: study of tyranny
Case: tyranny
Aspects: ideology, support base, degree of cruelty, etc.
Relations between these factors become apparent during the collection of the data and are used to refine the frame (e.g. more ideology, more cruelty)

18. Process and Strategies of Social Research (3)
Fluid Frames: researchers want to limit the influcence of preconceived ideas
Readily get rid of initial frame once evidence based images emerge
Start with alternative frames
Do not know what is their case a case of
Goals: especially “Give Voice”, but also “Interpreting culturally or historically significant phenomena”
Qualitative research

19. The Challenge of Social Research
Clear specification of ideas that guide research
Systematic examination of evidence used to build images and representations
Challenges:
construct representations that are instructive
Contribute to ongoing theoretical debates and embrace the depth of empirical evidence
Construct representations that are “new and true”