1. CHAPTER 7 Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

2. Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
TABLE 7.1 General characteristics of sheet-metal forming proceses.

3. Localized Necking in Sheet Metal
FIGURE (a) Localized necking in a sheet specimen under tension. (b) Determination of the angle of neck from the Mohr’s circle for strain. (c) Schematic illustration for diffuse and localized necking. (d) Localized necking in an aluminum strip stretched in tension. Note the double neck.

4. Yield Point Elongation
FIGURE (a) Yield point elongation and Lueder’s bands in tension testing. (b) Lueder’s bands in annealed low-carbon steel sheet. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for household products. Source: (b) Reprinted with permission from Caterpillar, Inc.

5. Stress-Corrosion Cracking
FIGURE Stress-corrosion cracking in a deep-drawn brass part for a light-fixture. The cracks developed over a period of time. Brass and austenitic (300 series) stainless steels are among metals that are susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking.

6. Shearing
FIGURE Schematic illustration of the shearing process with a punch and die. This process with a punch and die. This process is a common method of producing various openings in sheet metals.

7. Characteristics of Hole and Slug
FIGURE Characteristic features of (a) a punched hole and (b) the punched slug. Note that the slug has been sealed down as compared with the hole.

8. Shearing
FIGURE (a) Effect of clearance c between the punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. As clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die, rather than being sheared. In practice, clearances usually range between 2% and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV) contours for a 6.4-mm-thick (0.25-in.-thick) AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: After H. P. Weaver and K. J. Weinmann.
FIGURE Typical punch-penetration curve in shearing. The area under the curve is the work done in shearing. The shape of the curve depends on process parameters and material properties.

9. Punching, Blanking and Shearing Operations
FIGURE (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various shearing operations on sheet metal.

10. Fine Blanking
FIGURE (a) Comparison of sheared edges by conventional (left) and fine-blanking (right) techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of the setup for fine blanking. Source: Feintool U.S. Operations.

11. Sitting and Shaving Operations
FIGURE Schematic illustrations of shaving on a sheared edge. (a) Shaving a sheared edge. (b) Shearing and shaving, combined in one stroke.
FIGURE Sitting with rotary knives. This process is similar to opening cans.

12. Shear Angles For Punches and Dies
FIGURE Examples of the use of shear angles on punches and dies.

13. Progressive Dies
FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of the making of a washer in a progressive die. (b) Forming of the top piece of an aerosol spray can in a progressive die. Note that the part is attached to the strip until the last operation is completed.

14. Tailor-Welded Blanks
FIGURE (a) Production of an outer side panel of a car body by laser welding and stamping. (b) Examples of laser welded and stamped automotive body components. Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.

15. Bending
FIGURE (a) Bending terminology. The bend radius is measured to the inner surface of the bend. Note that the length of the bend is the width of the sheet. Also note that the bend angle and the bend radius (sharpness of the bend) are two different variables. (b) Relationship between the ratio of bend radius to sheet thickness and tensile reduction of area for various materials. Note that sheet metal with a reduction of area of about 50% can be bent and flattened over itself without crackling. Source: After J. Datsko and C. T. Yang.

16. Minimum Bend Radii
TABLE 7.2 Minimum bend radii for various materials at room temperature.

17. Length of Bend And Edge Condition/Ratio of Bend Radius
FIGURE The effect of length of bend and edge condition on the ratio of bend radius to thickness of 7075-T aluminum. Source: After G. Sachs and G. Espey.

18. The Effect of Elongated Inclusions
FIGURE (a) and (b) The effect of elongated inclusions (stringers) on cracking as a function of the direction of bending with respect to the original rolling direction of the sheet. This example shows the importance of the direction of cutting from large sheets in workpieces that are subsequently bent to make a product. (c) Cracks on the outer radius of an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90˚.

19. Springback in Bending
FIGURE Terminology for springback in bending. Springback is caused by the elastic recovery of the material upon unloading. In this example, the material tends to recover toward its originally flat shape. However, there are situations where the material bends farther upon unloading (negative springback), as shown in Fig
FIGURE Springback factor K, for various materials: (a) and aluminum; (b) austenitic stainless steels; (c) 2024-T aluminum; (d) 1/4- hard austenitic stainless steels; (e) 1/2-hard to full-hard austenitic stainless steels. Source: After G. Sachs.

20. Negative Springback
FIGURE Schematic illustration of the stages in bending round wire in a V-die. This type of bending can lead to negative springback, which does not occur in air bending (shown in Fig. 7.26a). Source: After K. S. Turke and S. Kalpakjian.

21. Methods of Reducing or Eliminating Springback
FIGURE Methods of reducing or eliminating springback in bending operations. Source: V. Cupka, T. Nakagawa, and H. Tyamoto.

22. Common Die-Bending Operations
FIGURE Common die-bending operations, showing the die-opening dimension W used in calculating bending forces. [See Eq,(7.11).]

23. Bending Operations In a Press Brake
FIGURE Schematic illustration of various bending operations in a press brake.

24. Various Bending Operations
FIGURE Examples of various bending operations.

25. Bead Forming
FIGURE (a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) Bead forming with two dies in a press brake.

26. Flanging Operations
FIGURE Various flanging operations. (a) Flanges on flat sheet. (b) Dimpling. (c) Piercing sheet metal to form a flange. in this operation, a hole does not have to be prepunched before the punch descends. Note, however, the rough edges along the circumference of the flange. (d) Flanging of a tube. Note the thinning of the edges of the flange.

27. Roll-Forming Process
FIGURE Stages in roll forming of a sheet-metal door frame. In Stage 6, the rolls may be shaped as in A or B. Source: G. Oehler.
FIGURE The roll-forming process.

28. Bending of Tubes
FIGURE Methods of bending tubes. Using internal mandrels, or filling tubes with particulate materials such as sand, is often necessary to prevent collapsing of the tubes during bending. Solid rods and structural shapes are also bent by these techniques.

29. Tube Forming
FIGURE A method of forming a tube with sharp angles, using axial compressive forces. Compressive stresses are beneficial in forming operations because they delay fracture. Note that the tube is supported internally with rubber or fluid to avoid collapsing during forming. Source: After J. L. Remmerswaal and A. Verkaik.

30. Stretch-Forming Process
FIGURE Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum skins for aircraft can be made by this process. Source: Cyril Bath Co.

31. Bulging Of A Tubular Part
FIGURE (a) Bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can be made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for plumbing by expanding tubular blanks with internal pressure. The bottom of the piece is then punched out to produce a “T.” Source: J. A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, 2d. ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Reproduced by permission of the McGraw-Hill Companies. (c) Manufacturing of Bellows.

32. Forming with a Flexible Pad
FIGURE Examples of bending and embossing sheet metal with a metal punch and a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Polyurethane Products Corporation.

33. Hydroform Process
FIGURE The hydroform, or fluid-forming, process. Note that, unlike in the ordinary deep-drawing process, the dome pressure forces the cup walls against the punch. The cup travels with the punch, and thus deep drawability is improved.

34. Tube-Hydroforming Process
FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of the tube-hydroforming process. (b) Example of tube-hydroformed parts. Automotive exhaust and structural components, bicycle frames, and hydraulic and pneumatic fittings are produced through tube hydroforming. Source: Schuler GmBH.

35. Spinning Processes
FIGURE Schematic illustration of spinning processes: (a) conventional spinning and (b) shear spinning. Note that in shear spinning, the diameter of the spun part, unlike in conventional spinning, is the same as that of the blank. The quantity f is the feed (in mm/rev or in./rev).

36. Shapes in Spinning Processes
FIGURE Typical shapes produced by the conventional-spinning process. Circular marks on the external surfaces of components usually indicate that the parts have been made by spinning. Examples include aluminum kitchen utensils and light reflectors.

37. Spinnability
FIGURE Schematic illustration of a shear-spinnability test. As the roller advances, the part thickness is reduced. The reduction in thickness at fracture is called the maximum spinning reduction per pass. Source: After R. L. Kegg.
FIGURE Experimental data showing the relationship between maximum spinning reduction per pass and the tensile reduction of area of the original material. Note that once a material has about 50% reduction of area in a tension test, any further increase in the ductility of the original material does not improve the material’s spinnability. Source: S. Kalpakjian.

38. Internal And External Tube Spinning
FIGURE Examples of external and internal tube spinning and the variables involved.

39. Tube And Shear Spinning of Compressor Shaft
FIGURE Stages in tube and shear spinning of a compressor shaft for the jet engine of a supersonic Concorde aircraft. Economic analysis indicated that the best method of manufacturing this part was to spin a preformed (forged and machined) tubular blank.

40. Explosive Forming Process
FIGURE Influence of the standoff distance and type of energy-transmitting medium on the peak pressure obtained using 1.8 kg (4 lb) of TNT. To be effective, the pressure-transmitting medium should have high density and low compressibility. In practice, water is a commonly used medium.
FIGURE Schematic illustration of the explosive-forming process. Although explosives are generally used for destructive purposes, their energy can be controlled and employed in forming large parts that would otherwise be difficult or expensive to produce by other methods.

41. Explosive Tube Bulging and Electrohydraulic Forming
FIGURE Schematic illustration of the confined method of explosive bulging of tubes. Thin-walled tubes of nonferrous metals can be formed to close tolerances by this process.
FIGURE Schematic illustration of the electrohydraulic-forming process.

42. Magnetic-Pulse-Forming Process
FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of the magnetic-pulse-forming process. The part is formed without physical contact without physical contact with any object

43. Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic Forming
FIGURE Two types of structures made by diffusion bonding and superplastic forming of sheet metal. Such structures have a high stiffness-to-weight ratio. Source: Rock-well International Corp.

44. Peen-Forming
FIGURE Peen-forming machine to form a large sheet-metal part, such as an aircraft-skin panel. The sheet is stationary, and the machine traverses it. Source: Metal Improvement Company.

45. Methods of Making Honeycomb Materials
FIGURE Methods of making honeycomb materials: (a) expansion process and (b) corrugation process. Source: Materials Engineering. Reprinted with permission. (c) Making a honeycomb sandwich.

46. Deep-drawing Process
FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process. This procedure is the first step in the basic process by which aluminum beverage cans are produced today. The stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Variables in deep drawing of a cylindrical cup. Only the punch force in this illustration is a dependent variable; all others are independent variables, including the blankholder force.

47. Deformation in Flange and Wall in Deep Drawing
FIGURE Deformation of elements in (a) the flange and (b) the cup wall in deep drawing of a cylindrical cup.

48. Drawing Operations
FIGURE Examples of drawing operations: (a) pure drawing and (b) pure stretching. The bead prevents the sheet metal from flowing freely into the die cavity. (c) Possibility of wrinkling in the unsupported region of a sheet in drawing. Source: After W. F. Hosford and R. M. Caddell.

49. Draw Bead
FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow during drawing of a box-shaped part, using beads to control the movement of the material. (c) Deformation of circular grids in drawing. (See Section 7.13.) Source: After S. Keeler.

50. Ironing Process Normal Anisotropy
FIGURE Schematic illustration of the ironing process. Note that the cup wall is thinner than its bottom. All beverage cans without seams (known as two-piece cans) are ironed, generally in three steps, after being deep drawn into a cup. (Cans with separate tops and bottoms are known as three-piece cans.)
Normal Anisotropy
FIGURE Definition of the normal anisotropy ratio, R, in terms of width and thickness strains in a tensile-test specimen cut from a rolled sheet. Note that the specimen can be cut in different directions with respect to the length, or rolling direction, of the sheet.

51. Average Normal Anisotropy
TABLE 7.3 Typical range of the average normal anisotropy ratio, R, for various sheet metals.

52. Anisotropy
FIGURE Relationship between the average normal anisotropy, R, and the average modulus of elasticity, E, for steel sheet. Source: After P. R. Mould and T. R. Johnson, Jr.
FIGURE Effect of grain size on the average normal anisotropy for various low-carbon steels. Source: After D. J. Blickwede.

53. Effect of Average Normal Anisotropy
FIGURE Effect of average normal anisotropy, R, on limiting drawing ratio (LDR) for a variety of sheet metals. Zinc has a high c/a ratio (see Figure 3.2c), whereas titanium has a low ratio. Source: After M. Arkinson.
FIGURE Earing in a drawn steel cup, caused by the planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.

54. Deep Drawing
FIGURE Schematic illustration of the variation of punch force with stroke in deep drawing. Note that ironing does not begin until after the punch has traveled a certain distance and the cup is formed partially. Arrows indicate the beginning or ironing.
FIGURE Effect of die and punch corner radii in deep drawing on fracture of a cylindrical cup. (a) Die corner radius too small. The die corner radius should generally be 5 to 10 times the sheet thickness. (b) Punch corner radius too small. Because friction between the cup and the punch aids in the drawing operation, excessive lubrication of the punch is detrimental to drawability.

55. Redrawing Operations
FIGURE Reducing the diameter of drawn cups by redrawing operations: (a) conventional redrawing and (b) reverse redrawing. Small-diameter deep containers undergo many drawing and redrawing operations.

56. Tractrix Die Profile
FIGURE Deep drawing without a blankholder, using a tractrix die profile. The tractrix is a special curve, the construction for which can be found in texts on analytical geometry or in handbooks.

57. Punch-Stretch Test
FIGURE (a) Schematic illustration of the punch-stretch test on sheet specimens with different widths, clamped at the edges. The narrower the specimen, the more uniaxial is the stretching. (b) A large square specimen stretches biaxially under the hemispherical punch. (See also Fig )

58. Bulge Test Results
FIGURE Bulge tests results on steel sheets of various widths. The first specimen (farthest left) stretched farther before cracking than the last specimen. From left to right, the state of stress changes from uniaxial to biaxial stretching. Source: Courtesy of R. W. Thompson, Inland Steel Research Laboratories.

59. Forming-Limit Diagram
FIGURE (a) Forming-limit diagram (FLD) for various sheet metals. The major strain is always positive. The region above the curves is the failure zone; hence, the state of strain in forming must be such that it falls below the curve for a particular material; R is the normal anisotropy. (b) Note the definition of positive and negative minor strains. If the area of the deformed circle is larger than the area of the original circle, the sheet is thinner than the original, because the volume remains constant during plastic deformation. Source: After S. S. Hecker and A. K. Ghosh.

60. Strains In Sheet-Metal Forming
FIGURE An example of the use of grid marks (circular and square) to determine the magnitude and direction of surface strains in sheet-metal forming. Note that the crack (tear) is generally perpendicular to the major (positive) strain. Source: After S. P. Keeler.

61. Major and Minor Strains In a Vehicle
FIGURE Major and minor strains in various regions of an automobile body.

62. Efficient Nesting of Blanks
FIGURE Efficient nesting of parts for optimum material utilization in blanking. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

63. Tearing and Buckling Control
FIGURE Control of tearing and buckling of a flange in a right-angle bend. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

64. Notches Used To Avoid Wrinkling
FIGURE Application of notches to avoid tearing and wrinkling in right-angle bending operations. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

65. Stress Concentrations Near Bends
FIGURE Stress concentrations near bends. (a) Use of a crescent or ear for a hole near a bend. (b) Reduction of the severity of a tab in a flange. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

66. Scoring For Sharper Inner Radius Bending
FIGURE Application of scoring of embossing to obtain a sharp inner radius in bending. Unless properly designed, these features can lead to fracture. Source: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

67. Cost Comparison
FIGURE Cost comparison for manufacturing a round sheet-metal container by conventional spinning and deep drawing. Note that for small quantities, spinning is more economical.

68. Top of Aluminum Can
FIGURE The top of an aluminum beverage container.

69. Metal-Forming Process for Food and Beverage Containers
FIGURE The metal-forming process used to manufacture two-piece beverage cans.

70. Aluminum Two-Piece Beverage Cans
FIGURE Aluminum two-piece beverage cans. Note the fine surface finish. Source: Courtesy of J. E. Wang, Texas A&M Univerity.