2. OBJECTIVES After studying Chapter 14, the reader should be able to:
Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic Systems (A6) certification test content area “A” (General Electrical/Electronic Systems Diagnosis).
Identify semiconductor components.
Explain precautions necessary when working around semiconductor circuits.
Discuss where various electronic and semiconductor devices are used in vehicles.
Describe how to test diodes and transistors.
List the precautions that a service technician should follow to avoid damage to electronic components from ESD.

3. SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors are materials that contain exactly four electrons in the outer orbit of their atom structure and are, therefore, neither good conductors nor good insulators.
When another material is added to a semiconductor material in very small amounts, it is called doping.

4. N-TYPE MATERIAL
N-type material is silicon or germanium that is doped with an element such as phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony, each having five electrons in its outer orbit.
FIGURE 14-1 N-type material. Silicon (Si) doped with a material (such as phosphorus) with five electrons in the outer orbit results in an extra free electron.

5. P-TYPE MATERIAL
P-type material is produced by doping silicon or germanium with the element boron or the element indium.
These impurities have only three electrons in their outer shell and, when combined with the semiconductor material, result in a material with seven electrons, one electron less than is required for atom bonding.

6. P-TYPE MATERIAL
FIGURE 14-2 P-type material. Silicon (Si) doped with a material [such as boron (B)] with three electrons in the outer orbit results in a hole capable of attracting an electron.

7. HOW HOLES MOVE
Current flow is expressed as the movement of electrons from one atom to another.
In semiconductor and electronic terms, the movement of electrons fills the holes of the P-type material.
Therefore, as the holes are filled with electrons, the unfilled holes move opposite to the flow of the electrons.
This concept of holes movement is called the hole theory of current flow.

8. HOW HOLES MOVE
The holes move in the direction opposite that of electron flow.
FIGURE 14-3 Unlike charges attract and the current carriers (electrons and holes) move toward the junction.

9. SUMMARY OF SEMICONDUCTORS
The following is a summary of semiconductor fundamentals.
The two types of semiconductor materials are P type and N type. N-type material contains extra electrons; P-type material contains holes due to missing electrons.
In P-type semiconductors, electrical conduction occurs mainly as the result of holes (absence of electrons).
Hole movement results from the jumping of electrons into new positions.
Under the effect of a voltage applied to the semiconductor, electrons travel toward the positive terminal and holes move toward the negative terminal.

10. DIODES
A diode is an electrical one-way check valve made by combining a P-type material and an N-type material.
The word diode means “having two electrodes.”
Electrodes are electrical connections:
The positive electrode is called the anode; the negative electrode is called the cathode.

11. DIODES FIGURE 14-4 A diode is a component with P- and N-type material
together. The negative electrode is called the cathode and the positive electrode is called the anode.

12. DIODES
FIGURE 14-5 Diode connected to a battery with correct polarity (+ to + and - to -). Current flows through the diode. This condition is called forward bias.

13. DIODES FIGURE 14-7 Diode symbol and electrode names.
FIGURE 14-6 Diode connected with reversed polarity. No current flows across the junction between the P-type and N-type material. This connection is called reverse bias.

14. ZENER DIODES
A zener diode is a specially constructed diode designed to operate with a reverse-bias current.
Zener diodes can be constructed for various breakdown voltages and can be used in a variety of automotive and electronic applications, especially for electronic voltage regulators.

15. ZENER DIODES
FIGURE 14-8 A zener diode blocks current flow until a certain voltage is reached, then it permits current to flow.

16. CLAMPING DIODES
Diodes can be used as a high-voltage clamping device when the power (+) is connected to the cathode (-) of the diode.
A diode connected across the terminals of a coil to control voltage spikes is called a clamping diode.
FIGURE 14-9 (a) Notice that when the coil is being energized, the diode is reverse biased and the current is blocked from passing through the diode. The current flows through the coil
in the normal direction. (b) When the switch is opened, the magnetic field surrounding the coil collapses, producing a high-voltage surge in the reverse polarity of the applied voltage. This voltage surge forward biases the diode, and the surge is dissipated harmlessly back through the windings of the coil.

17. CLAMPING DIODES
Diodes were first used on AC compressor clutch coils at the same time electronic devices were first used.
FIGURE Spike protection diodes are commonly used in computer-controlled circuits to prevent damaging high-voltage surges that
occur anytime current flowing through a coil is stopped.

18. ZENER DIODE DESPIKING PROTECTION
Zener diodes can also be used to control high-voltage spikes and keep them from damaging delicate electronic circuits.
FIGURE A zener diode is commonly used inside automotive computers to protect delicate electronic circuits from high-voltage spike. A 35 volt zener diode will conduct any voltage spike resulting from the discharge of a coil safely to ground through a current-limiting resistor in series with the zener diode.

19. DESPIKING PROTECTIVE RESISTORS
All coils must use some protection against high-voltage spikes that occur when the voltage is removed from any coil.
Instead of a diode installed in parallel with the coil windings, a resistor can be used and is called a spike protection resistor.
FIGURE A despiking resistor is used in many automotive applications to help prevent harmful high-voltage surges from being created
when the magnetic field surrounding a coil collapses when the coil circuit is
opened.

20. DESPIKING PROTECTIVE RESISTORS
Resistors are often preferred for two reasons.
Coils will usually fail when shorted rather than open, as this shorted condition results in greater current flow in the circuit.
The protective diode can also fail, and diodes usually fail shorted before they blow open.

21. DIODE RATINGS
Most diodes are rated according to their maximum current flow in the forward-bias direction and their resistance to high voltage in the reverse-bias direction.
This rating of resistance to reverse-bias voltage is called the peak inverse voltage (PIV) rating, or the peak reverse voltage (PRV) rating.

22. DIODE RATINGS
Typical 1 ampere diodes use a code that indicates the PIV rating.
For example:
1N V PIV
1N V PIV
1N V PIV
1N V PIV
1N V PIV

23. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODES
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) radiate light when current flows through the diode in the forward-bias direction.
FIGURE Typical LED. The longer of the two electrodes of an LED is the anode. Some LEDs use equal-length electrodes, and determination of which electrode to connect to which polarity must be made using an ohmmeter or the “diode check” position of a digital meter.

24. PHOTODIODES
All P-N junctions emit energy, mostly in the form of heat or light such as with an LED.
Photodiodes are specially constructed to respond to various wavelengths of light with a “window” built into the housing.
FIGURE Typical photodiodes.

25. PHOTODIODES
FIGURE Symbol for a photodiode. The arrows represent lights
striking the P-N junction of the photodiode.

26. PHOTORESISTORS
A photoresistor is a semiconductor material (usually cadmium sulfide) that changes resistance with the presence or absence of light.
Dark = high resistance
Light = low resistance

27. PHOTORESISTORS
FIGURE Either symbol may be used to represent a photoresistor.

28. VARISTORS
Varistors are resistors whose resistance depends on the level of voltage applied.
A varistor, or metal oxide varistor (MOV), operates similarly to two back-to-back zener diodes.

29. SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
A silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) is commonly used in the electronic circuits of various automotive applications.
An SCR is a semiconductor device that looks like two diodes connected end to end.
FIGURE Symbol and terminal identification of an SCR.

30. SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS
FIGURE Wiring diagram for a CHMSL.

31. THERMISTORS
A thermistor is a semiconductor material such as silicon that has been doped to provide a given resistance.
FIGURE Symbols used to represent a thermistor.

32. RECTIFIER BRIDGES
A rectifier bridge is a group of diodes that is used to change alternating current into direct current.
A rectifier bridge is used in alternators to rectify the alternating current produced in the stator (stationary windings) of the generator (alternator).

33. RECTIFIER BRIDGES
FIGURE This rectifier bridge contains six diodes; three on each side and mounted in an aluminum-finned unit to help keep the diode cool
during generator (alternator) operation.

34. TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a semiconductor device that can perform the following electrical functions.
Act as an electrical switch in a circuit.
Act as an amplifier of current in a circuit.
Regulate the current in a circuit.
FIGURE Bipolar transistors use P- and N-type materials to form
the three parts of a transistor. The P- and N-type materials can be arranged
either as a PNP transistor or an NPN transistor. The difference is in how the transistor
is turned on or off. Positive voltage to the base turns on an NPN transistor
whereas a lower or negative voltage is necessary to turn on a PNP transistor.

35. TRANSISTORS
The center section of a transistor is called the base; it controls current flow through the transistor
FIGURE The three parts of a transistor are the emitter (E), the base (B), and the collector (C).

36. TRANSISTORS
FIGURE The symbols and parts of a typical bipolar transistor.
Notice that the arrow is always on the emitter and points toward the N-type material.

37. HOW A TRANSISTOR WORKS
A transistor is similar to two back-to-back diodes that can conduct current in only one direction.
A transistor will allow current flow if the electrical conditions allow it to switch on, in a manner similar to the working of an electromagnetic relay.

38. HOW A TRANSISTOR WORKS
FIGURE Basic transistor operation. A small current flowing
through the base and emitter of the transistor turns on the transistor and permits a higher-amperage current to flow from the collector and the emitter.

39. HOW A TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIES
A transistor can amplify a signal if the signal is strong enough to trigger the base of a transistor on and off.
The resulting on–off current flow through the transistor can be connected to a higher-powered electrical circuit.

40. FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
Field-effect transistors (FETs) have been used in most automotive applications since the mid-1980s.
They use less electrical current and rely mostly on the strength of a small voltage signal to control the output.

41. FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS
FIGURE The three terminals of a field-effect transistor (FET)
are called the source, gate, and drain.

42. DARLINGTON PAIRS
A Darlington pair consists of two transistors wired together.
This arrangement permits a very small current flow to control a large current flow.
FIGURE A Darlington pair consists of two transistors wired
together, allowing a very small current to control a large current flow.

43. TRANSISTOR GAIN
A transistor can do more than switch on and off when the base is triggered. Most transistors can also amplify.
In an NPN transistor, for example, if the base voltage is higher than emitter voltage (by about 0.6 volt or more), current will flow from collector to emitter.

44. SOLID-STATE, INTEGRATEDCIRCUIT, AND DUAL-INLINE PACKAGE COMPONENTS
Solid-state components are used in many electronic semiconductors and/or circuits.
They are called “solid state” because they have no moving parts, just higher or lower voltage levels within the circuit.

45. SOLID-STATE, INTEGRATEDCIRCUIT, AND DUAL-INLINE PACKAGE COMPONENTS
Newer-style electronic devices use the same components, but they are now combined (integrated) into one group of circuits, and are thus called an integrated circuit (IC).
Integrated circuits are usually encased in a plastic housing called a CHIP with two rows of inline pins; this arrangement is called the dual inline pins (DIP) chips.

46. SOLID-STATE, INTEGRATEDCIRCUIT, AND DUAL-INLINE PACKAGE COMPONENTS
FIGURE Typical dual inline package chip with identifying
information explained.

47. HEAT SINK
Heat sink is a term used to describe any area around an electronic component that, because of its shape or design, can conduct damaging heat away from electronic parts.
Examples of heat sinks include the following:
Ribbed electronic ignition control units
Cooling slits and cooling fan attached to a generator (alternator)
Special heat-conducting grease under the electronic ignition module in all General Motors HEI systems

48. PHOTOTRANSISTORS
Similar in operation to a photodiode, a phototransistor uses light energy to turn on the base of a transistor.
Phototransistors are frequently used in steering wheel controls.
FIGURE Symbols for a phototransistor: (a) shows a line for
the base; (b) does not show a line for the base.

49. SOLAR CELLS
Solar cells are another type of semiconductor device where light energy is used to produce a small current flow by dislodging electrons within the structure.

50. HOW TO TEST DIODES AND TRANSISTORS
Diodes and transistors can be tested with an ohmmeter.
FIGURE To check a diode, select “diode check” on a digital multimeter. The display will indicate the voltage drop (difference) between the
meter leads. The meter itself applies a low-voltage signal (usually about 3 volts) and displays the difference on the display. (a) When the diode is forward biased, the meter should display a voltage between and V (500 mV to 700 mV). (b) When the meter leads are reversed, the meter should read OL (over limit) because the diode is reverse biased and blocking current flow.

51. HOW TO TEST DIODES AND TRANSISTORS Diodes
A good diode should give an over limit (OL) reading with the test leads attached to each lead of the diode in one way, and a voltage reading of to V when the leads are reversed.

52. HOW TO TEST DIODES AND TRANSISTORS Transistors
A good transistor should show continuity (between and V) between the emitter (E ) and the base (B) and between the base (B ) and the collector (C) with a meter connected one way, and OL when the meter test leads are reversed.

53. HOW TO TEST DIODES AND TRANSISTORS Transistors
FIGURE PNP and NPN transistors look alike if you are not familiar with small, detailed manufacturers’ markings. The best way to determine which type of transistor you have is to test it.
FIGURE If the red (positive) lead of the ohmmeter (or a multimeter set to diode check) is touched to the center and the black (negative lead) touched to either end of the electrode, the meter should forward bias the P-N junction and indicate on the meter as low resistance. If the meter reads high resistance, reverse the meter leads, putting the black on the center lead and the
red on either end lead. If the meter indicates low resistance, the transistor is a
good PNP type. Check all P-N junctions in the same way.

54. TRANSISTOR GATES
A gate is an electronic circuit whose output depends on the location and voltage of two inputs.
FIGURE Typical transistor AND-gate circuit. Notice that both transistors must be turned on before there will be voltage present at the point labeled “signal out.”

55. LOGIC HIGHS AND LOWS
All computer circuits and most electronic circuits (such as gates) use various combinations of high and low voltages.
High voltages are typically those above 5 volts, and low is generally considered zero (ground).

56. TRANSISTOR–TRANSISTOR LOGIC
Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) uses 5 volts as a reference, with high being slightly less than 5 volts and low being slightly above 0 volt.
TTL chips consume more electrical power, and therefore generate more heat, than newer ICs using complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) technology.

57. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Operational amplifiers (OP-amps) are frequently referred to simply as op-amps.
Op-amps are used in circuits to control and amplify digital signals.
FIGURE Symbol for an operational amplifier (op-amp).

58. POLARITY
Polarity, in electrical terms, means positive (+) or negative (-) electrical potential of a wire, component, or circuit.
Polarity usually indicates which terminal of a battery (or other power supply) should be connected to which terminal of a component.

59. POLARITY
FIGURE Polarity is marked on this capacitor with arrows.

60. ELECTRONIC COMPONENT FAILURE CAUSES
Electronic components such as electronic ignition modules, electronic voltage regulators, onboard computers, and any other electronic circuit are generally very reliable; however, failure can occur.
Following are frequent causes of premature failure.
Poor Connections
Heat
Voltage Spikes
Excessive Current

61. ELECTRONIC COMPONENT FAILURE CAUSES
FIGURE The length of on-time is called the pulse width.

62. BLINKING LED THEFT DETERRENT
A blinking (flashing) LED consumes only about 5 milliamperes (5/1,000 of 1 ampere or A).
Most alarm systems use a blinking red LED to indicate that the system is armed.
A fake alarm indicator is easy to make and install.

63. BLINKING LED THEFT DETERRENT
FIGURE Schematic for a blinking LED theft deterrent.

64. CONVERTERS AND INVERTERS Converters
DC to DC converters (usually written DC-DC converter) are electronic devices used to transform DC voltage from one level of DC voltage to another higher or lower level.

65. CONVERTERS AND INVERTERS Converters
FIGURE A DC to DC converter is built into most powertrain control modules (PCM) and is used to supply the five volt reference called V-ref to many sensors used to control the internal combustion engine.

66. CONVERTERS AND INVERTERS Converters
FIGURE This DC-DC converter is designed to convert 42 volts to 14 volts to provide 14V power to accessories on a hybrid/electric vehicle operating with a 42 volt electrical system.

67. CONVERTERS AND INVERTERS DC-DC Converter Circuit Testing
Usually a DC control voltage is used which is supplied by a digital logic circuit to shift the voltage level to control the converter.

68. CONVERTERS AND INVERTERS Inverters
An inverter is an electronic circuit that changes direct current (DC) into alternating current (AC).
An inverter converts DC power to AC power at the required frequency and amplitude.
The inverter consists of three half-bridge units and the output voltage is mostly created by a pulse width modulation (PWM) technique.

69. CONVERTERS AND INVERTERS Inverters
FIGURE A typical circuit for an inverter designed to change DC current from a battery to AC current for use by the electric motors used in a hybrid electric vehicle.

70. CONVERTERS AND INVERTERS Inverters
FIGURE The switching (pulsing) MOSFETs create a waveform called a modified sine wave (solid lines) compared to a true sine wave (dotted lines).

71. ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE
Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is created when static charges build up on the human body when movement occurs.
The friction of the clothing and the movement of shoes against carpet or vinyl floors cause a high voltage to build.

72. ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE
To help prevent damage to components, follow these easy steps.
Keep the replacement electronic component in the protective wrapping until just before installation.
Before handling any electronic component, ground yourself to a good conductor to drain away any static charge.
Do not touch the terminals of electronic components.

73. SUMMARY
Semiconductors are constructed by doping semiconductor materials such as silicon.
N-type and P-type materials can be combined to form diodes, transistors, SCRs, and computer chips.
Diodes can be used to direct and control current flow in circuits and to provide despiking protection.

74. SUMMARY 3. Transistors are electronic relays that can also amplify.
4. All semiconductors can be damaged if subjected to excessive voltage, current, or heat.
5. Never touch the terminals of a computer or electronic device; static electricity can damage electronic components.

75. REVIEW QUESTIONS
Explain the difference between P-type material and N-type material.
Describe how a diode can be used to suppress high-voltage surges in automotive components or circuits containing a coil.
Explain how a transistor works.
List the precautions to which all service technicians should adhere in order to avoid damage to electronic and computer circuits.

76. CHAPTER QUIZ A semiconductor is a material _____.
With fewer than four electrons in the outer orbit of its atoms
With more than four electrons in the outer orbit of its atoms
With exactly four electrons in the outer orbit of its atoms
Determined by other factors besides the number of electrons

77. CHAPTER QUIZ
2. The arrow in a symbol for a semiconductor device _____.
Points toward the negative
Points away from the negative
Is attached to the emitter
Both a and c are correct

78. CHAPTER QUIZ 3. To forward bias a silicon diode, _____.
The voltage at the anode must exceed the voltage at the cathode by 0.5 to 0.7 volt
The voltage at the cathode must exceed the voltage at the anode by 0.3 to 0.5 volt
The voltage at the anode must exceed the voltage at the cathode by 0.3 to 0.5 volt
The anode must be connected to a resistor (300 to 500 ohms) and 12 volts, with the cathode also connected to 12 volts

79. CHAPTER QUIZ
4. A transistor is controlled by the polarity and current at _____.
The collector
The emitter
The base
Both a and b

80. CHAPTER QUIZ 5. A transistor can _____. Switch on and off Amplify
Throttle
Do all of the above

81. CHAPTER QUIZ 6. Clamping diodes _____.
Are connected into a circuit with the positive () voltage source to the cathode and the negative () voltage to the anode
Are also called despiking diodes
Can suppress transient voltages
Are all of the above

82. CHAPTER QUIZ
7. A zener diode is normally used for voltage regulation. A zener diode, however, can also be used for high-voltage spike protection if connected _____.
Positive to anode, negative to cathode
Positive to cathode, ground to anode
Negative to anode, cathode to a resistor then to a lowervoltage terminal
Both a and c

83. CHAPTER QUIZ 8. The forward-bias voltage required for an LED is _____.
0.3 to 0.5 volt
0.5 to 0.7 volt
1.5 to 2.2 volts
4.5 to 5.1 volts

84. CHAPTER QUIZ
9. A good NPN transistor should test low resistance (low-voltage drop) between the _____ and _____, and high resistance (over limit voltage drop) between the _____ and _____.
Base; emitter; emitter; collector
Emitter; collector; gate; trigger
Trigger; base; collector; gate
Collector; base; emitter; base

85. CHAPTER QUIZ 10. Another name for a computer ground is _____.
Logic low
Zero
Reference low
All of the above

86. END