1. Louis P.Pojman Ethics: discovering right and wrong

2. Ethical theories ethical theory the locus of value deontological
the (kind) of act
teleological
the outcome i.e. consequences
virtue
the character
Pojman p 11-12

3. Normative subjects Ethics Religion Law Etiquette Subject
Normative Disjuncts
Sanctions
Ethics
Right and wrong, as defined by conscience or reason
Conscience – praise and blame, reputation
Religion
Right and wrong (sin), generally as defined by religious authority
Conscience – eternal reward and punishment, due to a supernatural agent or force
Law
Legal and illegal, as defined by a judicial body
Punishments determined by the legislative body
Etiquette
Proper and improper, as defined by the culture
Social disapprobation and approbation
Pojman p 6

4. Traits of Moral Principles
Prescriptivity
Universalizability
Overridingness
Publicity
Practicability
Pojman p 7

5. What and how do we evaluate
Domain
Evaluative Terms
1.Action (the act)
Right, wrong, obligatory, optional
2.Consequences
Good, bad, indifferent
3.Character
Virtuous, vicious, neutral
4.Motive
Good will, evil will, neutral
Pojman p 9

6. Types of action Right Wrong (permissible) (not permissible) Obligatory
Optional
Neutral Supererogatory
Pojman p 10

7. The Purposes of Morality
To keep society from falling apart.
To ameliorate human suffering.
To promote human flourishing.
To resolve conflicts of interest in just ways.
To assign responsibility for actions.
Pojman p 18

8. Ethical Relativism 1. The Diversity Thesis: 2. The Dependency Thesis:
there are no universal moral standards held by all societies
2. The Dependency Thesis:
to act in a certain way is relative to the society
3. The Conclusion:
there are no absolute or objective moral standards
Pojman p 28

9. Ethical Subjectivism
Solipsism
Atomism
Escapism
Pojman p 33

10. Ethical Conventionalism
Conservative
Totalitarian
Intolerant
Pojman p 41

11. The doctrine of natural law
1. Morality is a function of human nature.
2. Reason can discover valid moral principles by looking at the nature of humanity and society.
Pojman p 45

12. The key ideas of the natural law tradition
Human beings have an essential rational nature
Reason can discover the laws for human flourishing
The natural laws are universal and unchangeable
Pojman p 47

13. The doctrine of double effect
an act is morally permissible:
The Nature-of-the-Act Condition
The Means-End Condition
The Right-Intention Condition
The Proportionality Condition
Pojman p 48

14. Moral absolutism and objectivism
moral principles are nonover-ridable
moral norms are without exceptions
Kant, act utilitaria-nism
moral objecti-vism
moral principles are universally valid
no moral duty has absolute priority
Ross
Pojman p 45

15. Prima facie principles
valid rules of action
that one should generally adhere to
but that, in cases of moral conflict,
may be overridable by
another moral principle.
Pojman p 51

16. Minimal principles of the core morality
Do not kill innocent people.
Do not cause unnecessary pain or suffering.
Do not steal or cheat.
Keep your promises and honor your contracts.
Do not deprive another person of his or her freedom.
Do justice, treating equals equally and unequals unequally.
Reciprocate: Show gratitude for services rendered.
Tell the truth, or, at least, do not lie.
Help other people, at least when the cost to oneself is minimal.
Obey just laws. Pojman p 52

17. Justification of Moderate Objectivism
Human nature is relatively similar, having a common set of needs and interests.
Moral principles are functions of human needs and interests, instituted by reason.
Some moral principles will meet human needs and promote human interests better than others.
These principles can be said to be objectively valid principles.
Therefore an objectively valid set of moral principles is applicable to all humanity.
Pojman p 53-54

18. The attraction of ethical relativism
1. The option that absolutism and relativism are the only alternatives.
2. Objectiviam is confused with realism.
3. The move from descriptive cultural relativism to normative ethical relativism.
4. Drive to moral nihilism and relativism because of the decline of religion in Western society.
5. As metaethics so ought also ethics be morally neutral (amoral). Pojman p 56-58

19. Egoism The doctrine that it is morally right
always to seek one's own self-interest without regard for others.
Pojman p 71

20. Four types of egoism 1.Psychological egoism
We have no choice butto be selfish.
2.Personal egoism
The state of being selfish by choice
3.Individual ethical egoism
Everyone ought to serve my best interest
4.Universal ethical egoism
Everyone ought always to do those acts that will best serve own best self-interest Pojman p 65

21. Ethical egoism 1. The Economist Argument
individual selfinterest in a competitive marketplace produces a state of optimal goodness for society at large
2. The Argument for the Virtue of Selfishness
altruism is suicidal
3. The Hobbesian Argument
because we are predominantly psychological egoists it is morally permissible to act entirely out of self-interest Pojman p 72-74

22. A critique of ethical egoism
1. The Inconsistent Outcomes Argument
morality is not a guide to action
2. The Publicity Argument
egoist must act alone, atomistically or solipsistically in moral isolation
3. The Paradox of Egoism
in order to reach the goal of egoism on emust give up egoism and become (to some extent) an altruist
4. Counterintuitive Consequences
helping others at one's own expense is morally wrong
Pojman p 76-78

23. in favor of others' interests.
Altruism
The theory that
we can and should
sometimes act
in favor of others' interests.
Pojman p 66

24. Four types of altuism 1.Psychological altruism 2.Personal altruism
We have no choice butto be unselfish.
2.Personal altruism
The state of being unselfish by choice for reciprocal cooperation
3.Individual ethical altruism
I ought to serve everyone’s best interest
4.Universal ethical altruism
Everyone ought always to sacrifice own happiness for the good of others From Pojman chp 4 Noormägi

25. but willing to share with those
Reciprocal Altruism
No duty to serve those
who manipulate us,
but willing to share with those
willing to cooperate.
Pojman p 80

26. Axiology
negative neutral positive
evil/disvalue (value neutral) highest value
Pojman p 85

27. Value (to be of worth) intrinsic worthy in itself
(because of its nature)
instrumental
creation of choosers
(because of its consequences)
Pojman p 86-87

28. Plato's question Do we desire the Good because it is good,
or is the Good good
because we desire it?
Pojman p 85

29. Schema of the Moral Process
ACTIONS
Failure: weakness of will leads to guilt
DECISIONS
Failure: perverse will leads to guilt
JUDGMENTS Weighing
Failure: error in application
PRINCIPLES
Normative question: What ought I do?
VALUES Objects of desire or objects existing independently of desires
FORMS Hierarchies of beliefs, values,
OF LIFE and practices; cultures or ways of life
RATIONAL Of ethical theories
JUSTIFI Impartiality
CATION Freedom
3. Knowledge Pojman p 95

30. The Relation of Value to Morality
Values are rooted
in cultural constructs
(in whole forms of life)
and
are the foundation
for moral principles
upon which
moral reasoning is based.
Pojman p 96

31. Views of happiness Absolu-tists Subjec-tivists
A single ideal for human nature - harmony of the soul - is to live according to reason
Subjec-tivists
Happiness is in the eyes of the beholder -
if I feel happy, I am happy
Combina-tional (Objec-tivism)
There is a plurality of life plans open to each person - the person is the autonomous chooser of a plan, but there are primary goods and unless these goods are present, the life plan is not an authentic manifestation of an individual's own selfhood
Pojman p 96-97

32. Plan-of-life an integrated whole freely chosen by the person
possible to realize
Pojman p 97

33. The happy life Action Participation in our own destiny,
not being entirely passive
Freedom
To make choices, not being determined
Character
To be someone, have identity
Relationships
To love and be loved
Pojman p 99

34. Standard of happy life exclude being severely retarded, a slave,
a drug addict
include being
a deeply fulfilled,
autonomous,
healthy person
Pojman p 100

35. Happiness is a life in which exist free action
(including meaningful work),
loving relations, and
moral character,
and
in which the individual is
not plagued by guilt
and anxiety but
is blessed with
peace and satisfaction. Pojman p 100

36. Traditional morality advise who criticism
Let your conscience be your guide
common sense
conscience is a function of upbringing
Do whatever is most loving
St. Augustine
no help in a conflict of interests
Do unto others as you would have them do unto you
the Golden Rule
we are different
Pojman p

37. Utilitarianism “The Greatest happiness for the greatest number”
Pojman p 107

38. Punishment how why purpose retribution justice defensive proportional
threat
preventive
Pojman p 109

39. Hedonic calculus make quantitative measurements and
apply the principle impartially
Pojman p 110

40. Criteria of pleasure and pain
intensity
duration
certainty
nearness
fruitfulness
purity
extent Pojman p 110

41. the lower and higher pleasures
Moral experts
Those who have had
wide experience of
the lower and higher pleasures
almost all give
a decided preference
to the higher type.
Pojman p 111

42. as any available alternative.
Act-Utilitarianism
An act is right
if and only if it
results in as much good
as any available alternative.
Pojman p 112

43. Rule-Utilitarianism An act is right if and only if it is
required by a rule that is itself
a member of a set of rules
whose acceptance would lead to
greater utility for society than
any available alternative.
Pojman p 113

44. Negative responsibility
we are responsible
not only
for the consequences
of our actions (doing),
but also
of our non-actions (allowing)
Pojman p 114

45. 3 kinds of consequences consequence good, bad, indifferent actual
absolutely
expected
objectively
intended
subjectively
Pojman p 117

46. The strengths and weaknesses of utilitarianism
an absolute system with a single priciple with a potential answer for every situation;
morality has the substance: promoting human flourishing.
weaknesses:
there are two superlatives in one principle - either the greatest pleasure or to the greatest number;
the problem of knowing the comparative future consequences of actions. Pojman p

47. External objections to utilitarianism
1. no rest
2. absurd implications
3. violates integrity
4. neglects justice
5. contradicts notion of publicity
Pojman p

48. Man and morality Is morality made for man, or is man
made for morality?
Pojman p 124

49. Deontological systems
act norm-
deontologism deontologism
intuitionism decisionism
(illumination)(existentsialism)
norm norm-
intuitionism rationalism
Pojman p

50. Weaknesses of act-deontologism
1. There is no way for any arguments
with an intuitionist.
2. Rules are necessary also
to moral reasoning.
3. Because different situations
share common features,
it is inconsistent to prescribe
different moral actions. Pojman p

51. Prima facie principles duties conditional actual
self-evident the intuition
a plural set decides
not absolute in context
Pojman p 1133/145

52. Prima facie duties Promise-keeping Fidelity Gratitude for favors
Beneficence
Justice
Self-improvement
Non-maleficence Pojman p

53. Intuition is internal perception that both discovers
the correct moral principles
and
applies
them correctly
Pojman p 133

54. Influences on Kant’s ethical thinking
pietism:
the good will as the sole intrinsic good in life
Rousseau:
human dignity as the primacy of freedom and autonomy
rationalism versus empiricism
innate ideas versus tabula rasa
Pojman p

55. Kant on morality Morality is ground on our rational will - reason
is sufficient for establishing
the moral law as transcendent and
universally
binding on all rational creatures.
Pojman p 137

56. Empiricism moral principles feelings and desires human nature
All knowledge and justified belief
is based in experience.
Pojman p 136

57. The categorical imperative
Act only according
to that maxim
by which you can
at the same time will
that it would become
a universal law”.
Pojman p 139

58. The Golden Rule Do unto others as you would have them do unto you
Pojman p 106

59. The Principle of Ends So act as to treat humanity,
whether in your own person
or in that of any other,
in every case as an end and
never as merely a means”.
Pojman p 146

60. The Principle of Autonomy
Every rational being
is able to regard
oneself as a maker
of universal law.
Pojman p 149

61. Kant and religion
the unconditional worth and equal dignity of humanity, and natural purposes in nature and human nature guarantees the ultimate justification of morality
but that presupposes the ideas of
God,
who enforces the moral law and rewards moral persons in proportion
immortality,
since "ought" implies "can“ there must be an afterlife in which we make progress.
Pojman p

62. Mixed deontological ethics
the principle of beneficence
One ought not to inflict evil or harm.
One ought to prevent evil or harm.
One ought to remove evil.
One ought to do or promote good.
the principle of justice
Treat every person with equal respect
Pojman p

63. Critique of Deontic ethical systems
1. they lack a motivational component
and morality is reactive.
2. they are founded on a theological-legal model that is no longer appropriate.
3. they ignore the spiritual dimension of life and morality is just calculation.
4. they overemphasize the principle of autonomy and neglect the communal context of morality.
Pojman p

64. The virtues are excellences of character,
trained behavioral dispositions
that
result in habitual acts
Pojman p 163

65. Virtue ethics Realizing Imitating the ideal type the ideal individual
Pojman p 163

66. Virtues by Aristotle intellectual moral
(may be taught (must be lived directly) to be learned)
Pojman p 163

67. Happiness by Aristotle
Moral virtues
(education)
and
proper social institutions
(health, wealth, good fortune)
Pojman p 164

68. toward the right objects,
the Golden Mean
virtues are a mean
between
excess and deficiency
at the right time,
toward the right objects,
for the right reason,
in the right manner
Pojman p 164

69. Types of Relationships between Virtue Ethics and Deontic ethics
1. Pure Aretaic Ethics
2. The Standard Deontic View
3. Complementarity Ethics
Pojman p

70. The Paradox of Morality
Why should I be moral?
1. For the harmony of your soul.
2. God will reward or punish people.
The Ultimate Question:
Is the commitment to live by moral principles
a decision grounded on reason or
is it an arbitrary choice?
Pojman p

71. Morality and Self-Interest
When reason to be moral
is based on self-interest,
then the rational person
will be an egoist and
promote morality for everyone else
but will violate it
whenever he or she can
safely do so.
Pojman p 184

72. The Prisoner's Dilemma 1. Both cooperate - both benefit
2. Both cheat - both loose
3. You cooperate and I cheat - I benefit
4. I cooperate and you cheat - you benefit
Pojman p 186

73. The Entropy Principle Because of limitations in
resources, intelligence, knowledge, rationality and sympathy,
the social fabric tends to become chaos.
Morality is antientropic:
it counters the set of limitations,
expands our sympathies, and
contributes to the betterment of the human predicament
Pojman p 231

74. The benefits of the moral life
friendship
mutual love
inner peace
moral self-esteem
freedom from moral guilt
A human life without the benefits of morality is not fulfilled life.
The more just the political order,
the more likely self-interest and morality will converge.
Pojman p

75. Religion and Ethics 1. Does morality depend on religion?
a. morality depends on divine will
b. reasons for action are independent
2. Is religious ethics essentially
different from secular ethics?
a. religion is irrelevant (Kant) or
inimical to morality (secularists)
b. religion enrich morality
Pojman p 193

76. The Divine Command Theory
1. Morality originates with God.
2. Moral rightness means “willed by God”.
3. Therefore no further reasons
for action are necessary.
Pojman p 194

77. Criticism of religious morality
1. If good means "what God commands,"
then it is merely the tautology:
"God commands us to do what
God commands us to do."
2. Religious morality is arbitrary:
if there are no constraints on what
God can command, then
anything can become a moral duty.
Pojman p 196

78. Humanistic Autonomy is higher-order reflective control
over one’s life:
rational beings can discover
objective moral principles
which enable human beings to flourish
independently of God or revelation
by using reason and experience alone.
Pojman p 198

79. Religion enrich morality
If God exists, then good will win out over evil.
If God exists, then cosmic justice reigns in the universe.
If theism is true, then moral reasons always override nonmoral reasons.
If theism is true, then God loves and cares for us – his love inspires us.
If God created us in his image, then all persons are of equal worth.
Pojman p

80. Religion and motive
1. God is holy
2. God rewards
3. God loves us

81. Weaknesses of religious morality
1. Religion may be used as a powerful weapon for harming others.
2. The arguments for God's existence are not obviously compelling.
Pojman p

82. Civil religion
scientism
capitalism
nationalism
W. Beach

83. Is Ought Fact Value refer to what refer to what
is signified is signified
by empirically by an
verifiable evaluative
statements sentence
(some object (we are evaluating
or state of affairs or apprising
exists) something)
Pojman p

84. The Naturalistic Fallacy
1. Fact
2. Therefore, value.
Pojman p 212

85. Moore’s intuitionism 1. The Humean Thesis
(Ought statements cannot be derived from is statements)
2. The Platonic Thesis
(Basic value terms refer to nonnatural properties)
3. The Cognitive Thesis
(Moral statements are true or false; they are objective claims about reality, which can be known)
4. The Intuition Thesis
(Moral truths are discovered by the intuition;
they are self-evident upon reflection)
Pojman p 216

86. Logical Positivists the meaning of a sentence is found in its method
of verification
Pojman p 216

87. Noncognitivism moral statements are without cognitive content –
emotivism, prescirptivism.
Pojman p 218

88. Emotivism 1. Moral language is expressive of emotions or feelings,
without cognitive content.
2. Moral language is imperative,
not descriptive.
3. Moral language aims at persuading – influencing another person’s actions.
Pojman p 218

89. Prescriptivism moral judgments (1) are prescriptive judgments that
(2) exhibit logical relations and
(3) are universalizable -
involve principles that
allow a rational procedure
in cases of conflict.
Pojman p 220

90. The Logic of Moral Reasoning
A valid moral argument
must contain at least
one ought (imperatival) premise
in order to reach
a moral conclusion.
Pojman p

91. Criticism of Prescriptivism
1. is too broad
2. permits the trivial
3. misses the point of morality
4. no constraints on altering one's principles
Pojman p

92. Fact-Value Positions Problems of Meaning Problems of justification
Cognitivism [Ethical claims have truth-value and it is possible to know what it is]
A. Naturalism
Ethical terms are defined in factual terms; they refer to natural properties.
Ethical judgments are disguised assertions of some kind of fact and thus can be justified empirically.
1. Subjective
Their truth originates in individual or social decision.
2. Objective
Their truth is independent of individual or social decision.
B. Nonnaturalism
Ethical terms cannot be defined in factual terms; they refer to nonnatural properties.
Ethical conclusions cannot be derived from empirically confirmed propositions.
1. Intuitionism
Intuition alone provides confirmation.
2. Religious revelation
Some form of divine revelation provides confirmation.
Noncognitivism [Ethical claims do not have truth-value.]
A. Emotivism
Ethical terms do not ascribe properties, and their meaning is not factual but, rather, emotive.
Ethical judgments are not factually, rationally, or intuitively justifiable.
B. Prescriptivism
Ethical terms do not ascribe properties, and their meaning is not factual but, rather, signifies universal prescriptions.
Ethical judgments are not factually, intuitively, or rationally justifiable, but are existentially justified. Pojman p 228

93. Neonaturalism values can sometimes be derived from facts –
certain facts
entail values.
Pojman p 227

94. are not truths about the world,
Moral objectivism
moral judgments
are not truths about the world,
but judgments about
how we ought
to make the world
Pojman p 235

95. Cognitivism versus Noncognitivism
Realism Naturalism Nonnaturalism (intuitionism) Supernaturalism
Error TheoryMoral Skepticism
Antirealism Emotivism Prescriptivism Projectivism
Cognitivism: Moral principles (or judgments have truth values (they are propositions that are true or false)
Error theory: Realism is the correct analysis of moral principles, but we are in error about them. There are no moral truths. This is a form of moral nihilism.
Noncognitivism: Moral principles (or judgments) do not have truth values (they are pro attitudes or con attitudes, not essentially proportional).
Realism: Moral facts or properties exist, hence moral principles (or judgments) are proportional and true – part of the fabric of the universe. Examples of realism are naturalism, nonnaturalism, and supernaturalism.
Moral Skepticism: There may or may not be moral truths, but even if they exist, we cannot know them.
Pojman p 240
Antirealism: Moral principles (or judgments) do not have truth values. There are no moral facts. Examples of antirealism are emotivism, prescriptivism, and projectivism (the view that, in making moral judgments, we project our attitudes or emotions onto the world).

96. Direction of fit A proposition is true word to world
A moral prescriptipon
is universally valid
world to word
Pojman p 251

97. Moral properties are functional: to fulfil the purpose of morality –
to promote human flourishing
and ameliorate suffering
Pojman p 244

98. Moral realism thought experiments as well as
anthropological and sociological data
confirm
our moral theory
which principles
are objective guidelines
for our action
Pojman p 252

99. A moral minimalism calling us to adhere to a core of necessary rules
in order for society to function
morality is
social control
and
defensive
Pojman p 255

100. Virtue ethics The duty to grow as a moral person to take on
moral responsibility,
to increase competence
in making moral choices
to develop
moral capacities
to experience happiness.
Pojman p 257

101. The moral hero experiences a sense of aesthetic ecstasy
at accomplishing moral deeds
that are out of the realm of possibility
for the average moral person.
Pojman p 258

102. Suggestions Identify the problem you want to analyze.
As clearly as possible, state the problem and what you intend to show.
Set force your arguments in logical order, and support your premises with reasons. It helps to illustrate your points with examples or to point out counterexamples to opposing points of view.
Consider alternative points of view as well as objections to your own position. Try to meet these charges and show why your position is more plausible.
Apply the principle of charity to your opponent’s reasoning. That is, give his or her case the strongest interpretation possible, for unless you can meet the strongest objections to your own position, you cannot be confident that your position is the best.
End your paper with a summary and a conclusion. That is, succinctly review your arguments and state what you think you’ve demonstrated. In the conclusion it is always helpful to show the implications of your conclusion for other issues. Answer the question “Why does it matter?”
Be prepared to write at least two drafts before you have a working copy. Make sure that your arguments are well constructed and that your paper as a whole is coherent.
Regarding style: write clearly, and in an active voice. Avoid ambiguous expressions, double negatives, and jargon. Put other people’s ideas in your own words as much as possible, and give credit in the text and in bibliographical notes whenever you have used someone else’s idea or quoted someone.
Include a bibliography at the end of your paper. In it list all the sources you used in writing your paper.
Put the paper aside for a day, then read it afresh. Chances are you will find things to change.
When you have a serious problem, do not hesitate to contact your teacher.
Pojman p