1. Sternentstehung - Star Formation Sommersemester 2006 Henrik Beuther & Thomas Henning 24.4 Today: Introduction & Overview 1.5 Public Holiday: Tag der Arbeit 8.5 --- 15.5 Physical processes, heating & cooling, cloud thermal structure 22.5 Physical processes, heating & cooling, cloud thermal structure (H. Linz) 29.5 Basic gravitational collapse models 5.6 Public Holiday: Pfingstmontag 12.6 Basic gravitational collapse models 19.6 Accretion disks 26.6 Molecular outflow and jets 3.7 Protostellar evolution, the stellar birthline 10.7 Cluster formation and the Initial Mass Function 17.7 Massive star formation, summary and outlook 24.7 Extragalactic star formation More Information and the current lecture files: http://www.mpia.de/homes/beuther/lecture_ss06.html beuther@mpia.de

2. The cosmic cycle

3. Basics I Neutral and ionized medium Stars form in the dense molecular gas and dust cores Most important astrophysical tools: Spectral lines emitted by various molecules Absorption and thermal emission from dust

4. Basics II High dust column densities block optical and UV-light in dark cores --> important requirement that molecules can form and survive History: - Late 1930s: Detection of CH, CH + and CN in diffuse clouds by ab- sorption of optical light by background stars - 1960s: Detection of OH, NH 3 and H 2 O at radio wavelength Formation of molecules is an energy problem, two atoms approach each other with positive total energy, hence would simply rebound if no energy could be given away someway … Possibilities: - Simultaneous collision with 3rd atom carrying away energy --> unlikely at the given low densities - Form a molecule in excited state, and then radiating away energy --> probablility of such radiative association low as well - Neutral-neutral reactions from unstable “activated complexes” (intermediate between reactants and products) which may form larger molecules --> activation barrier ~100K, impossible on cold dark cores - Ion-molecule or ion-atom reactions may solve energy problem - Neutral-neutral reactions on dust grain surfaces (catalytic) important

5. Basics III Ion induces dipole moment in atom or molecule which creates an electrostatic attraction between the two. --> effective cross section increases over geometric values Even at low temperatures such reactions can account for large fraction of interstellar molecules. However, there are not enough ions available at any time to account for large H 2 abundances --> grain surface chemistry important Simple molecules like CO or CS explainable by ion-molecule chemistry, less clear for complex molecules, grain surface chemistry important No larger inorganic species than, e.g., NH 3, however large organic molecules --> carbon bond important in interstellar chemistry CO most abundant molecule after H 2 --> most information about molecular clouds from CO observations + - -- + + +

6. A few important molecules Mol. Trans. Abund. Crit. Dens. Comments [cm -3 ] ------------------------------------------------------------------- H 2 1-0 S(1) 1 8x10 7 Shock tracer CO J=1-0 8x10 -5 3x10 3 Low-density probe OH 2  3/2 ;J=3/2 3x10 -7 1x10 0 Magnetic field probe (Zeeman) NH 3 J,K=1,1 2x10 -8 2x10 4 Temperature probe CS J=2-1 1x10 -8 4x10 5 High-density probe H 2 O 6 16 -5 23 1x10 3 Maser H 2 O 1 10 -1 11 <7x10 -8 2x10 7 Warm gas probe CH 3 OH 7-6 1x10 -7 1x10 5 Dense gas/temperature probe CH 3 CN 19-18 2x10 -8 2x10 7 Temperature probe in Hot Cores

7. Basics IV Depletion of molecules on dust grains The grains are moving at v therm relative to molecules E = 1/2 mv 2 therm = 3/2 k b T => v therm = (3k b T/m) 1/2 n grains sweeps out cylindrical volume in time  t of n(  a 2 )v therm  t (a: grain radius) Probability of molecule in volume V to be struck by grain in time  t P(  t)/V = n(  a 2 )v therm  t /V Hence the collision time t coll t coll = 1/(n(  a 2 )v therm ) = 1/(n H  v therm ) (n H : density;  : cross section) For example CS: v therm ~ 5x10 3 cm s -1 at 10K, and n H ~ 10 4 cm -3 t coll ~ 6x10 5 yr Depletion time-scale very short --> mechanisms for reinjecting molecules from grains important

8. Depletion example 1.2 mm Dust Continuum C 18 O N 2 H + Possible mechanisms working against depletion: - UV radiation (not working in dense cores) - In small grain, heat from chemical grain surface reactions could raise temperature - Kelvin-Helmholtz contraction and energy - Ignited central protostar - Shocks - …

9. Molecular Hydrogen (H 2 ) Since H 2 consists of 2 identical atoms, it has no electric dipol moment and rotationally excited H 2 has to radiate via energetically higher quadrupole transitions with excitation temperatures > 500 K. --> cold clouds have to be observed other ways, e.g., CO H 2 can be detected in hot environment. Rotational energy: Classical mechanics: E rot = J 2 /2I ( J: Angular momentum; I: Moment of inertia) Quantum-mechanical counterpart: E rot = h 2 /2I x J(J+1) = BhI x J(J+1) (J: rotational quantum number; B: rotational constant) Small moment of inertia --> large spread of energy levels Allowed quadrupole transitions  J = 2 --> lowest rotational transition J=2-0 has energy change of 510 K

10. Carbon monxide (CO) Forms through gas phase reactions similar to H 2 Strong binding energy of 11.1 eV helps to prevent much further destruction (self-shielding) Has permanent dipole moment --> strong emission at (sub)mm wavelengths Larger moment of inertia than H 2 --> more closely spaced rotational ladder J=1 level at 4.8x10 -4 eV or 5.5K above ground In molecular clouds excitation mainly via collisions with H 2 Critical density for thermodynamic equilibrium with H 2 n crit = A/  ~ 3x10 3 cm -3 (A: Einstein A coefficient;  : collision rate with H 2 ) The level population follows a Boltzmann-law: n J+1 /n J = g J+1 /g J exp(-  E/k B T ex ) (for CO, the statistical weights g J = 2J + 1) The excitation temperature T ex is a measure for the level populations and equals the kinetic temperature T kin if the densities are > n crit

11. Ammonia (NH 3 ) Formed through gas-phase reactions Symmetric-top molecule E rot = J 2 A /2I A + J 2 B /2I B + J 2 C /2I C --> However, useful transitions only at very high freq. Most useful transitions are the inversion transitions around 25GHz --> tunneling energy barrier Additional effects (non-spherical charge distribution, quadr. mom., magn. interaction between spins) causes further hyperfine splitting Energy barrier

12. Heating processes UV radiation from stars Energy injection from supernovae Energy injection from outflows/jets Cosmic rays interaction with HI and H 2 (consist mainly of relativistic protons accelerated within magnetized shocks produced by supernova-remnant--molecular cloud interactions) p + + H 2 --> H 2 + + e - + p + (dissociation: ions also important for ion- molecule chemistry) Interstellar radiation (diffuse field permeating interstellar space) Mainly dissociates carbon (lower ionization potential than H 2 ) C + h --> C + + e - The electron then disperses energy to surrounding atoms by collisions. Photoelectric heating: - Heats grains which re-radiate in infrared regime - UV photons eject e - from dust and these e - heat surrounding gas via collisions

13. Cooling processes Major constituents H & H 2 have no dipole moment and hence cannot effectively cool in quiescent molecular cloud. Other coolants required. --> Hydrogen collides with ambient atoms/molecules/grains exciting them. The cooling is then done by these secondary constituents. O + H --> O + H + h  collisional excitation (FIR)  C + + H --> C + + H + h  fine structure excitation (FIR)  CO + H 2 --> CO + H 2 + h  rotational excitation (radio/(sub)mm)  The low-J CO lines are mostly optically thick, the energy diffuses  from region to region and escapes from cloud surface. Higher J  lines cool directly. CO is the most effective coolant in molecular clouds.  Collisions with gas atoms/molecules cause lattice vibrations on grain  surfaces, that decay through the emission of infrared photons (since  grains are also heated by radiation gas and dust temperature are  usually not equal).

14. Radiation transfer I dI = -  I ds +  ds with the opacity d    -  ds and the source function S =  /   dI / d  = I  + S Assuming a constant source function   I  = S  (1 - e -  ) + I,0 e - 

15. Radiation transfer II The excitation temperature T ex is defined via a Boltzmann distribution as n J /n J-1 = g J /g J-1 exp(h /kT ex ) with n J and g J the number density and statistical weights. In case of rotational transitions g J = 2J + 1 In thermal equilibrium T ex = T kin In a uniform molecular cloud the source function S equals Planck function S = B (T ex ) = 2h 3 /c 2 (exp(h /kT ex ) - 1) -1 And the radiation transfer equation  I = B (T ex ) (1 - e -  ) + I,0 e -  In the Rayleigh-Jeans limits (h <<kT) B equals B = 2k 2 /c 2 T And the radiation transfer equation is T = J (T ex ) (1 - e -  ) + J,0 (T bg )e -  With J = h /k (exp(h /kT) - 1) -1 Subtracting further the background radiation T r = (J (T ex ) - J n,0 (T bg )) (1 - e -  )

16. Molecular column densities To derive molecular column densities, 3 quantities are important: 1)Intensity T of the line 2)Optical depth  of the line (observe isotopologues or hyperfine structure) 3)Partition function Q The optical depth  of a molecular transition can be expressed like  = c 2 /8  2 A ul N u (exp(h /kT) -1)  With the Einstein A ul coefficient A ul = 64  4 3 /(3c 3 h)  2 J u /(2J u -1) And the line form function   = c/ 2sqrt(ln2)/(sqrt(  )  ) Using furthermore the radiation transfer eq. ignoring the background T = J (T ex )  (1 - e -  )/  And solving this for , one gets N u = 3k/8  3  1/  2 (2J u -1)/J u  /(1 - e -  ) (T  sqrt(  )/(2sqrt(ln2)) The last expression equals the integral Tdv. The column density in the upper level N u relates to the total column density N tot N tot = N u /g u Q exp(E u /kT) For a linear molecule like CO, Qcan be approximated to Q = kT/hB. However, for more complex molecules Q can become very complicated.

17. Conversion from CO to H 2 column densities One classical way to derive conversion factors from CO to H 2 column densities and gas masses essentially relies on three steps: 1)Derive ratio between colour excess E B-V and optical extinction A v A v = 3.1 E B-V (Savage and Mathis, 1979) 2)The ratio N(H 2 )/E B-V : One can measure the H 2 column density, e.g., directly from UV Absorption lines. 3)The ratio N(CO)/A v : In regions of molecular gas emission, one can estimate A v by star counts in the Infrared regime  Combining these three ratios, the CO observations can directly be converted to H 2 column densities. Assumptions about the 3D cloud geometry allow further estimates about the cloud masses and average densities.

18. Applications I: Molecular gas structure of the Galaxy based on CO observations

19. Applications II: Velocity structure of molecular clouds

20. Applications III: Molecular outflows

21. Applications IV: Temperature estimates from NH 3 T kin = T rot (  11  22 T 11 T 22 )

22. Applications V: Magnetic field estimate from OH  h: projection of orbital angular momentum of e - to internuclear axis Internal magn. field splitting caused by interaction of spins from e - and nucleii The Zeeman splitting causes lines with varying polarizations.  mag ~ B usually of the order a few 10  G For thermal lines, differential Imaging of various polari- zations important.

23. Sternentstehung - Star Formation Sommersemester 2006 Henrik Beuther & Thomas Henning 24.4 Today: Introduction & Overview 1.5 Public Holiday: Tag der Arbeit 8.5 --- 15.5 Physical processes, heating & cooling, cloud thermal structure 22.5 Physical processes, heating & cooling, cloud thermal structure (H. Linz) 29.5 Basic gravitational collapse models 5.6 Public Holiday: Pfingstmontag 12.6 Basic gravitational collapse models 19.6 Accretion disks 26.6 Molecular outflow and jets 3.7 Protostellar evolution, the stellar birthline 10.7 Cluster formation and the Initial Mass Function 17.7 Massive star formation, summary and outlook 24.7 Extragalactic star formation More Information and the current lecture files: http://www.mpia.de/homes/beuther/lecture_ss06.html beuther@mpia.de