1. Overview of Occupational Segregation in the U.S. Vicky Lovell, Ph.D. Institute for Women’s Policy Research World Bank Workshop II for Gender Focal Points April 7, 2005

2. Occupational segregation is a strong, persistent feature of U.S. labor markets. Despite the end of legal barriers to professional education for women, in the 1960s, women and men continue to work in very different jobs. There has been some decline in the extent of occupational segregation in the U.S. in recent decades:

3. Table 1. Index of Dissimilarity (0 = complete integration) Year Score 1970 67 198060 199056 200052 Source: Jerry A. Jacobs, “Detours on the Road to Equality” (Contexts 2(1):32-41, Winter 2003).

4. Table 2. Examples of occupational segregation OccupationWomen as percent of all workers Ratio of women’s to men’s earnings Physicians and surgeons 32 %59 % Lawyers32 %87 % Computer software engineers 22 %75 % Registered nurses90 %88 % Secretaries96 %93 % Pre-school and kindergarten teachers 98 %n/a Source: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Highlights of Women’s Earnings in 2003 (USDOL 978, September 2004).

5. Why does it matter? Wages are lower in jobs that are held mainly by women (Stone 2003). Many female-dominated jobs are extremely low-wage. Women are not able to reach their full potential if limited in their occupational choices. Employers are not able to choose the most productive workers.

6. Table 3. Top 20 occupations for women Occupation Number of Women Occupation's Percent Female Women's Median Weekly Earnings Total, 16 years and older44,07643.9$552 Secretaries and administrative assistants2,69296.3531 Elementary and middle school teachers1,78080.6757 Registered nurses1,65090.2887 Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides1,14489.0372 Cashiers1,04075.5315 Customer service representatives1,03869.1503 First-line supervisors/managers, office/admin support98467.9609 First-line supervisors/managers of retail sales workers93841.5496 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks89491.4512 Receptionists and information clerks83193.2446 Accountants and auditors78458.3756 Retail salespersons76541.6382 Maids and housekeeping cleaners68284.6317 Secondary school teachers54053.5824 Waiters and waitresses52868.1318 Teacher assistants52790.9344 Office clerks, general51183.8502 Financial managers49151.6823 Preschool and kindergarten teachers47698.3493 Cooks45239.3317

7. Concern about slow progress in closing the gender wage ratio

8. There is increasing concern about women’s and families’ economic stability and self-sufficiency, with women having a growing responsibility for family income. In some occupations, women’s representation has actually decreased – e.g., some computer-related occupations. Employment growth is expected to be greatest in some very low-paying jobs requiring very low (or no) training or education.

9. Table 4. Employment growth 2002 – 2012 OccupationNo. new jobs expected Earnings quartile (4 = lowest) Education / training requirement Registered nurses623,0001Associate degree Post-secondary teachers603,0001Doctoral degree Retail salespersons596,0004Short-term on-the-job training Customer service representatives 460,0003Moderate on-the-job training Food preparation and service, including fast food 454,0004Short-term on-the-job training Cashiers454,0004Short-term on-the-job training Janitors and cleaners414,0004Short-term on-the-job training General managers376,0001College degree + exp. Waitpersons367,0004Short-term on-the-job training Nursing aides343,0003Short-term on-the-job training Truck drivers337,0002Moderate on-the-job training Receptionists325,0003Short-term on-the-job training Security guards317,0004Short-term on-the-job training Office clerks310,0003Short-term on-the-job training Teacher assistants294,0004Short-term on-the-job training Source: Daniel E. Hecker, “Occupational employment projections to 2012” (Monthly Labor Review 27(2): 80-105, February 2004)..

10. Interest in non-traditional jobs for women In the U.S., “non-traditional” means fewer than 25 percent of workers in the occupation are women. Typically have higher pay than female-dominated jobs. For less-skilled workers, main jobs are in construction (carpenters, electricians, plumbers). Training provided by community colleges or union apprenticeship programs.

11. Non-traditional occupations offer many benefits to women.... Higher wages Good benefits (health insurance, pensions) Variety and mobility Casual dress Outdoor work Job satisfaction Opportunities to learn on the job Career ladders Enhanced quality of life New skills that can be used in many jobs

12. .... along with some challenges: Hazardous workplaces Discrimination and/or harassment Sense of isolation if there are few other women Families and friends may not be supportive Transportation and child-care may be difficult to arrange Weather, heat, cold, dust, dirt, noise Physical requirements Shift work Seasonal layoffs May need to learn unfamiliar skills Source: Wider Opportunities for Women 2004.

13. Non-traditional occupations offer higher wages and lower education/training costs Average cost of a 4-year college degree: $74,000 Average cost of a 4-year apprenticeship program: $2,000 In the first 20 years, workers will earn: College graduates: $630,000 Union workers in building trades: $844,000 Source: Oregon Tradeswomen n.d.