1. Superconductivity 2012 Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Demonstration What did we see? High-T c materials (How to make superconductors) Some applications and important properties

2. How do we show superconductivity? Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Superconductors 1. have an electrical resistivity that is exactly zero, 2. refuse magnetic fields to enter the superconducting volume. (Lab experiment) Let's try!

3. Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden “Perfect“ metal Superconductor Room temperature Room temperature, with magnetic field At low temperature (T<Tc), after cooling in a constant magnetic field

4. "Perfect conductor" effect Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden “Perfect“ metal Superconductor Room temperature Low temperature (T<Tc)without magnetic field After applying a magnetic field at low temperature (T<Tc)

5. Why is the levitation stable? Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden When you balance things on soft springs the situation is usually unstable. So why doesn't the magnet simply fall off? Because the field can penetrate! Take a ceramic:

6. Why is the levitation stable? Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Although the grains are superconducting, the boundaries are effectively thin "normal" films. Some field lines can find ways to penetrate the ceramic, but then get "locked" in place - they cannot move without crossing grains!

7. Two types of superconductors: Types I and II Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Type I Type II Different behaviours in magnetic fields (red): Weak B-fields are always repelled, by both types; strong fields destroy the superconductivity in type I, but penetrate type II in "vortex tubes" containing one flux quantum each!

8. Superconducting materials Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden "Classical" superconductors: Metals and alloys! Hg4.2 KDiscovered by Heike Kammerling Onnes in 1911 (Nobel Prize 1913) Pb7.2 K Nb9.2 K(0.2 T - type II element!) NbTi9.8 K14 T (The "standard" superconductor) NbN16.1 K16 T (used in thin film applications) Nb 3 Sn 18 K24 T (expensive and difficult to use)

9. High Transition Temperature Superconductors (HiTc:s) Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden MgB 2

10. High Transition Temperature Superconductors (HiTc:s) Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Some representative ”heads of families” of HiTcs : La 2-x Sr x CuO 4 38 K (Bednorz & Müller, 1986) YBa 2 Cu 3 O 7-d 92 K (Wu & Chu, 1987) Bi 2 Ca 2 Sr 2 Cu 3 O 10 110 K Tl 2 Ba 2 Ca 2 Cu 3 O 10 125 K HgBa 2 Ca 2 Cu 3 O 8 135 K

11. High Transition Temperature Superconductors (HiTc:s) Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Quite complicated structures! One of the simplest is YBa 2 Cu 3 O x, "Y-1-2-3": The basic structure is tetragonal, with copper and oxygen forming a framework into which we insert Ba and Y. The formula is now YBa 2 Cu 3 O 6, and this material is NOT superconducting!

12. High Transition Temperature Superconductors (HiTc:s) Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Quite complicated structures! One of the simplest is YBa 2 Cu 3 O x, "Y-1-2-3": The basic structure is tetragonal, with copper and oxygen forming a framework into which we insert Ba and Y. To get a superconducting material we must add more oxygen, to obtain YBa 2 Cu 3 O 7 !

13. High Transition Temperature Superconductors (HiTc:s) Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Quite complicated structures! One of the simplest is YBa 2 Cu 3 O x, "Y-1-2-3": CuO chain Ba spacer CuO plane Y spacer CuO plane Ba spacer CuO chain These are the metallic, superconducting parts! To some extent, more CuO planes mean higher Tc!

14. High Transition Temperature Superconductors (HiTc:s) Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden How to make YBa 2 Cu 3 O x, "Y-1-2-3": 1. Mix and grind Y 2 O 3, BaCO 3 and CuO for a long time. 2. Heat in an oven at 900-925 o C for at least 1 hour. 3. Crush, re-grind, and repeat 2. a few times. 4. Press into a cake, then heat in pure oxygen gas at 450 o C for at least 24 hours. 5. Time to test for superconductivity!

15. High Transition Temperature Superconductors (HiTc:s) Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Higher values for Tc can be found for other materials, based on Bi, Hg or Tl. These are also layered, often with many parallel internal layers of CuO: Tl 2 Ba 2 CuO 6 Tl-2201 (single CuO) 85 K Tl 2 Ba 2 CaCu 2 O 8 Tl-22122 layers105 K Tl 2 Ba 2 Ca 2 Cu 3 O 10 Tl-22233 layers125 K (Bi-2223  110 K, Hg-1223  135 K)

16. A new star: MgB 2 Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Superconductivity in MgB 2 was discovered in 2001 with Tc = 39 K, the highest for any "classical" superconductor. The material is cheap, easy to handle, non- poisonous, and easily formed into wires or films/tapes. Problem: The practical critical field seems to be limited to 3.5 T.

17. An even newer star: iron arsenides Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden In 2008, another type of layered, exotic superconductors, based on iron and arsenic, was discovered. Takahashi et al., Nature 453, 376 (2008)

18. An even newer star: iron arsenides Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden In 2008, another type of layered, exotic superconductors, based on iron and arsenic, was discovered. Another family is Ba x K y Fe 2 As 2. Critical temperatures up to above 55 K have been reported when changing the La to heavier rare earths. Again, the material is cheap and fairly easy to handle, but As is clearly poisonous!

19. Applications for superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden There are basically two types of applications: Power circuits and electronics/measurements. Most practical applications use type II superconductors. Existing and future commercial devices: Power transmission components, power storage devices, electric motors and generators, frictionless bearings, permanent magnets and electromagnets, voltage standards, fast computers and electronics, microwave filters,.........

20. Applications for superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden In electronics, one possible application is in fast computers. Clock pulses must be synchronized in a computer, but at 3 GHz light travels only 10 cm during one clock pulse! Shrinking a computer means more concentrated heating, killing the CPU. The obvious solution is a cool superconducting computer!

21. Electronics and measurements: tunnelling Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Tunneling between two superconductors (”SIS”) can be used as the basis for many devices. In principle, both electrons and pairs can tunnel through a Josephson junction, so the real behaviour can be either bistable (logic 1/0!) or continuous.

22. Electronics and measurements: the SQUID Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden A particularly useful device is the SQUID: Superconducting QUantum Interference Device or With a SQUID it is possible to routinely measure magnetic fields down to well below 10 -16 T!

23. Electronics and measurements: the SQUID Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden The SQUID can be used for measurements (as a sensor). Superconducting loop Josephson junctions, called ”weak links” External connections

24. Electronics and measurements: the SQUID Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Each Josephson junction has a maximum supercurrent I = I 0 sin , so the maximum current that can run through the device is 2I 0. 2I 0

25. Electronics and measurements: the SQUID Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden If we apply a very weak external magnetic field, a circulating shielding current will appear and no field will exist inside the loop! The external current must decrease to avoid exceeding the maximum supercurrents in the junctions.

26. Electronics and measurements: the SQUID Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden When the magnetic field corresponds to exactly ½ magnetic flux quantum inside the ring, the circulating current has its maximum and the external current its minimum value.

27. Electronics and measurements: the SQUID Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden If the field increases further, one flux quantum is admitted through a weak link, and the circulating current reverses! It can easily be shown that the external current is a periodic function I max = 2I 0 cos(  /  0 )

28. But how do you make ceramic "wires"? Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden There are two ways: 1. Thin films on a metal or ceramic substrate 2. "Powder-in-tube" technology Stainless Deposition of Oxygen treatment Storage steel band ceramic film in hot oven

29. But how do you make ceramic "wires"? Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden There are two ways: 1. Thin films on a metal or ceramic substrate 2. "Powder-in-tube" technology Fill a silver tube with superconductor powder, then draw to desired shape, then heat treat ("anneal").

30. But how do you make ceramic "wires"? Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden The "powder-in-tube" method is simlar to what you do to "classical" superconductors: Basic procedure: - Make a Cu cylinder, - make a lot of holes along axis, - fill the holes with superconducting rods, - draw the whole cylinder to wire, as if it were massive Cu! This procedure works well with Nb-Ti, which is soft and ductile like copper!

31. But how do you make ceramic "wires"? Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden All superconductor wires have similar internal "multi- strand" structures! NbTi wire High-Tc (BiSSC) wires

32. Using type II superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden An obvious application for a superconductor is to transport electric current. What happens to electrons in a B-field ? Current B-field Let us remember two laws: F m = qv  B ("Maxwell")  F = 0 ("Newton") There will be a force on the magnetic field lines!

33. Using type II superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Is this a problem ? A moving field ↔ changing flux; but - d  /dt = E ! Current B-field This gives two problems: 1. A voltage appears along the current flow; "resistance"! 2. This causes dissipation of heat, since P = U  I

34. Using type II superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Is this a problem ? A moving field ↔ changing flux; but - d  /dt = E ! This gives two problems: 1. A voltage appears along the current flow; "resistance"! 2. This causes dissipation of heat, since P = U  I

35. Using type II superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Or, if we measure voltage as a function of applied current at constant temperature:

36. Using type II superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Conclusion: We want to keep the flux lattice fixed in space! How do we do this? Flux lines prefer to go through non-superconducting regions, because it requires energy to create a vortex tube! So, we should insert impurity particles into the superconductor! This method is called flux pinning.

37. Using type II superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden You have already seen a magnet fly ! You can also make a really good magnetic bearing, or ”freeze in” a field to make a permanent magnet – with a field which you can shape exactly as you want it!

38. Using type II superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden BUT: Flux pinning also gives problems: There is a”friction force” that keeps them in place, and because J   X B, dB z /dx  J c everywhere inside a type II superconductor! Increasing external field:

39. Using type II superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden BUT: Flux pinning also gives problems: There is a”friction force” that keeps them in place, and because J   X B, dB z /dx  J c everywhere inside a type II superconductor! Increasing external field:

40. Using type II superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden BUT: Flux pinning also gives problems: There is a”friction force” that keeps them in place, and because J   X B, dB z /dx  J c everywhere inside a type II superconductor! Decreasing external field:

41. Using type II superconductors Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden BUT: Flux pinning also gives problems: There is a”friction force” that keeps them in place, and because J   X B, dB z /dx  J c everywhere inside a type II superconductor! : This leads to a magnetic hysteresis, and to energy loss (= heating!). It can be shown that the loss is proportional to the thickness a of the superconductor!

42. A possible novel application Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden The first practical application for high-Tc materials in power circuits is likely to be something that cannot be made without superconductivity. One such example is the superconducting current limiter: Consider a standard transformer (which you can find in any electronic device, at home or here): U 1 /U 2 = N 1 /N 2 = I 2 /I 1, where 1 means "input" side, 2 "output" side, and N is the number of wire turns! http://www.yourdictionary.com

43. A possible novel application Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden The first practical application for high-Tc materials in power circuits is likely to be something that cannot be made without superconductivity. One such example is the superconducting current limiter: Suppose we make a transformer with N 2 = 1 (a single turn). If we short-circuit the output, U 2 =0, then U 1 = NU 2 = 0, for all currents! Usually this is just stupid, but what if we make the secondary one turn of superconducting wire?

44. A possible novel application Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Superconducting current limiter: Primary current I 1 I 2 = N I 1 ; if the coil superconducts U 1 = U 2 = 0, and P = UI = 0 ! However, whenever I 2 > Ic the secondary turns normal and R 1 = U 1 /I 1 = N 2 U 2 /I 2 = N 2 R 2 ! Because N can be made large and high-Tc materials have very large normal resistivities, this works as a "fuse"!

45. A possible novel application Department of Physics, Umeå University, Sweden Superconducting current limiter: N 1 = 500 N 2 = 1 Ic ≈ 85 A at 77 K (measured!) Tc ≈ 110 K (Bi-2223)