Revision of Unit A3 Hazards

Revision of Unit A3 Hazards
Part 1

The next 4 weeks: Hazards
Key idea 1: Some places are more hazardous than others. Key idea 2: Hazards have an impact on people and the environment. Key idea 3: Different levels of economic development affect how people cope with hazards.

Hazards Week 1: Key idea 1: Some places are more hazardous than others
Essential content Different types of hazard (climatic, tectonic, etc). The global distributions, causes and characteristics of tropical revolving storms, volcanic and earthquake activity (plate movements). Measuring and recording weather conditions, eg strong winds, intense rainfall. Mapping the global distribution of recent hazards. Collecting and recording weather data (fieldwork opportunity).

Hazards Week 2: Key idea 2: Hazards have an impact on people and the environment. Essential content Identifying the scale of natural disasters and their short-term (deaths, injuries, damage to buildings and infrastructure) and long term (homelessness, costs of repairing damage) impacts. Reasons why people continue to live in areas at risk from hazard events. Research into a recent hazard event (egg satellite images, damage photographs). A comparative study of the impacts of tropical storms, in an LIC and an HIC.

Hazards Week 3/4: Key idea 3: Different levels of economic development affect how people cope with hazards. Essential content Managing hazards (tropical storms, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes) involves taking actions both before and after the event. Predicting and preparing for hazards (education, early warning systems, shelters). Responding to hazards: short-term (emergency aid and disaster relief); long-term (risk assessment, adjustment, improving prediction). Surveying peoples’ views on the management of a hazard event Case studies of the management of one tropical storm and one tectonic event. One of these should have happened in an LIC and the other in an HIC.

Some places are more hazardous than others
So this week Key Idea 1 Some places are more hazardous than others

Different types of hazard (climatic, tectonic, etc).
A natural hazard is a threat of a naturally occurring event that will have a negative effect on people or the environment. Many natural hazards are interrelated, e.g. earthquakes can cause tsunamis and drought can lead directly to famine. If this threat becomes a serious reality then it becomes a disaster. If you live on the edge of a tectonic plate, then earthquakes are a hazard. A natural hazard becomes a natural disaster when it affects people, officially causing more than 10 deaths, injuring more than 100 people, and/or causing US$16 million of damage. So the San Francisco earthquake was a disaster because: US$400 million ($9.5 billion in 2009 dollars). Over 80% of the city was destroyed by the earthquake and fire Over 3000 died from the earthquake and the fire that followed as a result of gas leaks etc About 300,000 of the 410,000 population were made homeless Injury figures have not been established

Different types of hazard (climatic, tectonic, etc).
Natural hazards include: Avalanche Landslide and mudflows Volcanic eruptions Lahar Flood Tsunami Tropical storms Tornados Wildfire

The global distributions, causes and characteristics of tropical revolving storms
They are known under 3 names: They are hurricanes of the United States and the Caribbean They are tropical cyclones on the India Ocean They are Typhoons in the Pacific They have wind speeds of at least 120km/hr They only usually occur within a band from 20 Deg North to 20 Deg South of the equator. They do not happen at all times of the year but are most common between mid summer and autumn. So for the Southern Hemisphere this is between December and April while in the Northern Hemisphere, it is between June and October. Those storms whose wind speed do not reach these higher limits but have wind speeds reaching 60 km/hr are usually called tropical storms.

Here is a map showing where they form and where they travel to

The causes and characteristics of tropical revolving storms
They form over warm sea which has a temperature of at least 26 deg C The warm sea evaporates and warms the air above it. The warm moist air rises, causing low pressure. As this warm air rises, it cools and the water vapour condenses into huge tall cumulous clouds The trade winds swirl in and towards the low pressure to replace the rising air. This air then become warm and moist and rises upwards. The swirling air around the centre of the storm pulls the warm, damp, rising air outwards.

The causes and characteristics of tropical revolving storms
This makes the whole storm spin at increasing speed. Thus the ‘eye of the storm’ is a low pressure centre down which cold, dense air from above air from above drops and adds to the warm moist spinning air that is rising up. It continues to build in size and speed, getting all its energy from the warm water below. The force of the spinning storm pushes down on the sea below it so that a wave forms a rim around the storm. As the swirling storm picks up speed, it begins to move in a westerly direction away from the equator (so that is NW in the Northern Hemisphere).

The characteristics of tropical storms
If it approaches landfall, the wind will begin to pick up and the dark thunder clouds can be seen approaching. On the coast, the first real sign might well be a tidal surge, a big wave up to 7 metres high, caused by the downward pressure of the storm on the sea, made higher in front, like the bow wave on a ship, as the storm moves forward. The very high winds and torrential rain will follow. At some point, the wind may drop and rain lessen, if the eye of the storm passes over. But the wind and rain will soon pick up again. However once the storm has blown onto the land it will soon loose speed and ferocity, as its source of energy, the warm water, is no longer there to feed the storm. If this is too wordy for you, go and look at the animation on

Category Wind Speed Effects 1 2 3 4 5 Storm surge: 1.2 – 1.5m
km/hr Storm surge: 1.2 – 1.5m Some flooding but no structural damage 2 km/hr Storm surge: 1.8 – 2.4m Trees down and some loose tiles 3 180 – 210 km/hr Storm surge: m Structural damage to houses –severe flooding 4 210 – 250 Storm surge: 4-5.5m Severe flooding inland – roofs ripped off major structural damage 5 >250 km/hr Storm surge: >5.5m Severe flooding inland – severe damage to most structures

The global distributions, causes and characteristics volcanic and earthquake activity (plate movements). The earth’s structure consists of: A core A mantle A crust The crust is broken into a number of pieces called plates. The plates are moved by the viscous up-across-down, convection current movement of the mantle. It is mostly due to these movements that earthquakes and volcanoes occur along the plate edges.

The global distributions and causes volcanic and earthquake activity
These are the 4 kinds of plate movements. I have deliberately grouped them in 2 pairs. How the pair on the left different from those on the right? On drawing subduction is taking place – which one and what does it mean? There are heavy dense oceanic plates and lighter continental plates. What kind of plates are in each of these plate movements?

Can you give me examples of where each type of plate is found?

Can you see the link between the plate edge and the type of activity that takes place along it? Green = major plates – there are lots of small ones that do not show Yellow = earthquakes Red = Volcanoes

The causes and characteristics of earthquake activity
Earthquakes occur mainly on plate boundaries that are moving towards, past or away from each other Over many years pressure builds up until eventually the rocks snap along a weak area called the FAULT LINE The point of origin of an earthquake is the FOCUS – this is the point where it starts from The place at the surface directly above the focus is called the EPICENTRE What sort of margin is this?

The closer to the surface the focus of the earthquake is and the softer the rocks, the higher the magnitude of the seismic waves and the greater the damage The stored energy is released, travelling outwards in SEISMIC WAVES Seismic Waves are strongest at the epicentre of an earthquake – this is where the most damage is caused Seismic Waves spread out from the focus like ripples *AS SEISMIC WAVES TRAVEL OUTWARDS THEY LOSE ENERGY*

The causes and characteristics of earthquake activity
The magnitude of an earthquake is measured on the Richter Scale An earthquake’s magnitude (the strength) is measured using a seismograph. Each subsequent level is x10 more powerful than the previous on was. The scale is continuous (has no end) although nothing above 9.2 has not been recorded on land.

Measuring Earthquakes – one way

But the only problem with Richter is …
That it tells you about the strength of the earthquake at focus/epicentre and so each earthquake only has 1 value. But obviously, this tells you nothing about what it is like further away – is there any damage? How great is the damage? So there is another measure of earthquakes, which when you are looking them up you may come across. It is called the Modified Mercalli Scale - it is often measured using Roman Numerals I, II, III, IV etc Go to the animation where you can get an appreciation of what an earthquake may feel like as various points on the scale

An example On September 29 there was an earthquake under the sea, south of Samoa and American Samoa had a Richter scale of 8.0 (or 8.3 depends who you read) the Richter scale predicts serious damage across several hundred kilometres. But the Mercalli scales for these were Samoa felt (V) and (IV) at American Samoa. But it was the tsunami that did the damage. At least 149 people killed in Samoa, 34 people in American Samoa and nine people killed and four injured on Niuatoputapu, Tonga. Widespread damage to infrastructure at Pago Pago and Samoa.

The characteristics of earthquake activity
There are 2 types of waves in an earthquake Body waves and surface waves. Body waves travel outward in all directions, including downward, from the quake's focus -- that is, the particular spot where the fault first began to rupture. Surface waves, by contrast, are confined to the upper few hundred miles of the crust. They travel parallel to the surface, like ripples on the surface of a pond out from the focus. They are also slower than body waves.

The characteristics of earthquake activity
Following an earthquake … ..the body waves (P-wave) strike first and are the fastest kind People often report a sound like a train just before they feel a quake, which is the P-wave moving as an acoustic wave in the air. Then the secondary, or S-waves, arrive. A person in a building perceives the arrival of S-waves as a sudden powerful jolt, as if a giant has pounded his fist down on the roof. Finally, the surface waves strike. In very strong earthquakes, the up-and-down and back-and-forth motions caused by surface waves can make the ground appear to roll like the surface of the ocean, and can literally topple buildings over.

The causes of volcanic activity
1.The oceanic crust subducts under the continental crust 2. It warms up and turns into magma that is trapped under the crust above it 1.The continental crust is folded and faulted by the pressure of the subduction 2. The trapped magma escapes through the fault to form a volcano This is one worth learning to draw

Just to remind you – here are the plates and …
Constructive and destructive It is only at these sites that the magma from the mantle has a way through – in constructive because the 2 diverging plates leave a gap and in destructive because the continental plate is folded as the oceanic crust subducts under it , creating faults to the magma below In the other 2 plate margins, in the conservative plate margin they grind past each other and in the collision margin the edges fold upwards, leaving to faults to the magma. Just to remind you – here are the plates and … Where are the places the volcanoes occur most commonly? Why is that?

Ring of Fire

This is one worth learning to draw

The characteristics of volcanic activity
Often earthquakes occurring near a volcano can be one of the first warnings of things to come Lava: it can be thick, viscous (sticky) lava or much more runny. The thick lava moves relatively slowly and hardens quickly to form new rock – and so forms a cone shape a cone shape. Eruptions tend to be violent. Eruptions that give out the thin, runny lava tend to be frequent but relatively gentle and come from a shield volcano. Pyroclastic flow: some volcanoes do not give out lava alone but a mixture of hot steam, ash, rock and dust. A pyroclastic flow can roll down the sides of a volcano at very high speeds and with temperatures of over 400° C.

The characteristics of volcanic activity
Ash clouds may affect more than the immediate area. They consist of water vapour, sulphur gas as well as small rock fragments and tiny pieces of glass. Many of these will return to earth and add a layer of dust to a wide area. However, the gases may be carried a long way by the wind once they have reached high enough into the atmosphere. This may be carried all around the world ad has in the past had a lasting impact on the climate, lowering the temperature for a year or more. E.g. Krakatoa in 1883 is the largest volcano eruption in recorded history for which we have data. Average global temperatures fell by as much as 1.2 degrees Celsius in the year following the eruption. Weather patterns continued to be chaotic for years and temperatures did not return to normal until 1888.

Finally Lehars These can occur at the same time as a volcanic eruption but may also occur over succeeding years. Lahars form when water from intense rainfall, melting snow and ice, or the sudden failure of a natural dam, mixes with loose volcanic material, creating mudflows that can be particularly dangerous and destructive. Although lahars contain a lot of volcanic ash and rock fragments–making them dense and viscous like wet concrete–they actually flow faster than clear-water streams. These mudflows can rush down the flanks of a volcano at speeds as great as 65 kilometres per hour and can travel more than 80 kilometres. Lahars that contain the most debris move the fastest and are the most destructive.

VEI = Volcanic Explosivity Index
This measure the size of the eruption after it is finished. However, forecasting an eruption on a scale is rather more complicated, as each volcano has a slightly different way of behaving so there are almost as many scales as there are volcanoes! But most use a variation on the green (no problem), yellow (not much to worry about), orange (watch this space!) and finally red (move NOW) warning system.

Collecting and recording weather data
Many of you had a go at a variation on this. But there is an indication that the way this could be examined is by them asking you how you collect weather data. Whilst most data is collected electronically these days, you are still expected to understand the ideas behind how these measurements are made, so you need to know how the basic instruments work even though you will probably never use many of them!

What you need to measure: Temperature including maximum and minimum Pressure Wind speed and direction Precipitation What pieces of kit you need to understand: Thermometers various Stevenson’s screen Barometer Anemometer Weather Vane Rain gauge

The thermometer Usually consists of a hollow glass bulb attached to a narrow stem with a thread-like bore. The bulb is filled with either mercury or alcohol stained red. The liquid in the tube expands when the temperature rises and contracts when the temperature falls. The amount of expansion and contraction is measured by a numbered scale. Whilst thermometers are really measuring their own liquid temperature, they are used to measure the temperature of the surrounding air. To make sure that the temperature of the surrounding air is the same as the thermometer, it must be shaded from sunlight and be exposed to adequate ventilation. These conditions are provided by a Stevenson screen. Why is it white? Why are there louvers? Why is it on legs? Why the large roof? Met office Stevenson screens in the UK have doors facing north. Why?

Wet and dry thermometer If the air is dry, any water will evaporate quickly. As water evaporates is removes heat from its surroundings to give the energy to change from a liquid to a gas. One of these thermometers has a supply of moisture wrapped around its bowl, so on a dry day, this will evaporate and reduce the wet thermometer’s temperature. The difference in the temperature between the 2 thermometers can be used to calculate the % of moisture in the air.

One instrument used to measure air pressure is called a barometer.
But a more usual one used in weather stations is a barograph. The motor rotates the drum containing the paper chart. The capsules are flexible metal discs from which nearly all the air has been extracted. As the external air pressure increases, the discs squash together more, and this rotates the arm so that the end with the pen on draws an upward line on the drum. Air Pressure

Wind speed is measured using an anemometer. An anemometer is made up of cups attached to handle with a scale on it. The stronger the wind the faster the cups rotate and the higher the reading on the scale. A wind vane is used to measure wind direction. It is measured using compass directions (north, south, east or west) from which the wind has blown so in this case the wind is coming from the ENE

The instrument used to measure rainfall is a rain gauge. Notice that the precipitation runs into a funnel and from there into a bottle. The bottle will be calibrated to measure the depth of rain falling on a 127mm circle. Notice that the storage bottle is below ground. Why might that be? Why do you think the distance above ground of the gauge top is also fixed?

Key idea 2: Hazards have an impact on people and the environment.
Essential content Identifying the scale of natural disasters and their short-term (deaths, injuries, damage to buildings and infrastructure) and long term (homelessness, costs of repairing damage) impacts. Reasons why people continue to live in areas at risk from hazard events. Research into a recent hazard event (e.g. satellite images, damage photographs). A comparative study of the impacts of tropical storms, in an LIC and an HIC.

Short term impacts of natural disasters
Avalanche Landslide and mudflows Wild fire Lahar Tropical storm Volcanic eruptions Flood Tsunami Tornado Do they high or medium or low mortality associated with them? Are there a few or lots of injuries Are these local or national or international? Are many home damaged Is transport hit? Is a lot of farmland/crops destroyed Is a lot of farmland/crops destroyed Are the services damaged – water electricity etc Can anyone think of any others?

Long term impacts of natural disasters
Avalanche Landslide and mudflows Wild fire Lahar Tropical storm Volcanic eruptions Flood Tsunami Tornado Will it cost a lot to put right? Will it take a long time to repair roads railways and airports Will there be many long term homeless? Will there be enough food being produced or will long term aid be needed Are many home damaged Is transport hit? Will the services be able to be reinstated? Can anyone think of any others? Will the businesses be able to restart?

Reasons why people continue to live in areas at risk from hazard events.
A natural event (e.g. earthquake, flood, landslide, volcanic eruption, tropical storm) that has the potential to cause damage, destruction and death present as a natural hazard. So Hazard is the potential to cause harm. Risk on the other hand is the likelihood of harm (in defined circumstances, and usually qualified by some statement of the severity of the harm). How frequently is there a risk? How serious can it be? Is there anything that can be done to reduce the risk? This is a risk assessment.

Reasons why people continue to live in areas at risk from hazard events.
People make decisions on the basis of: Physical/ environmental – how often will I be at risk? The climate is good (warm enough and wet enough), soil is fertile, the natural resources for fishing, farming are there to make a good living Human/social – the family has always lived there, there is a community, work, it is a pleasant place to be, do not have a choice or do not see themselves as having one, lack of education to do other work. There are things that can be done to reduce the risk (but more about that in the next week or 2) Economic – work, from farming, tourism maybe, fishing, it is where property is owned.

Can anyone think of any other ideas?
Reasons why people continue to live in areas at risk from hazard events. Can anyone think of any other ideas? In particular near volcanoes: The soil is excellent. Lava breaks down over time to produce the most fertile soil on earth. e.g. around Vesuvius where much of Italy’s tomato crop is grown. Along plate edges, geothermal power is often a cheap and clean source of power – e.g. Iceland Usually, there are sufficient signs to move to safer places, so while property could be as risk, increasing people are less so, e.g. Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991 was the 2nd largest eruption in the 20th century but only 300 died because of mass evacuation of the area. Tourism is a strong pull, e.g. in Uganda, a country trying hard to increase its tourist industry, the volcanic region around Mt Elgon is being heavily promoted for it's landscape, huge waterfalls, wildlife, climbing and hiking and its remote 'get away from it all' location.

Reasons why people continue to live in areas at risk from hazard events. In particular in earthquake zones: Along plate edges, geothermal power is often a cheap and clean source of power – e.g. Iceland Many earthquake areas are close to the coast – the climate is good, fishing and farming are easy. Many of these places like Japan get daily earthquakes and they have learnt to deal with them. They causes little or no damage as they adjust building methods for example. The big ones are very infrequent – 1906 and 1989 in San Francisco, so people believe they can manage. Can anyone think of any other ideas?

Reasons why people continue to live in areas at risk from hazard events. In particular areas subject to cyclonic storms: These are close to the coast – the climate is good, fishing and farming are easy. Transport links tend to be good and the flat land near the coast is a good place to build towns and cities. With modern technology, there should be enough time to evacuate areas in danger (although as with Katrina the right choices are not always made), so while danger to property and services are still at risk, the danger to life should be much reduced. Can anyone think of any other ideas?

Research into a recent hazard event (e. g
Research into a recent hazard event (e.g. satellite images, damage photographs). Those of you who were here last autumn had several chances to investigate current recent hazardous events. Those of you who were not might like to look at the Haiti earthquake – there is some good stuff on the wiki which you could use as a starter, but do try find some more yourselves. – see list of links under the PP in the wiki

A comparative study of the impacts of tropical storms, in an LIC and an HIC.
For these 2 we did Hurricane Katrina that hit New Orleans, USA (HIC) And Cyclone Sidr, Bangladesh (LIC) I am not going to go over them – that’s for you guys for homework There is plenty of information towards the bottom of:

*this is what the syllabus says but really once you are dealing with the reality, it is no longer a hazard but a disaster Hazards Week 3/4: Key idea 3: Different levels of economic development affect how people cope with hazards. Essential content Managing hazards* (tropical storms, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes) involves taking actions both before and after the event. Predicting and preparing for hazards* (education, early warning systems, shelters). Responding to hazards*: short-term (emergency aid and disaster relief); long-term (risk assessment, adjustment, improving prediction). Surveying peoples’ views on the management of a hazard* event Case studies of the management of one tropical storm and one tectonic event. One of these should have happened in an LIC and the other in an HIC.

Case studies of the management of one tropical storm and one tectonic event. One of these should have happened in an LIC and the other in an HIC. For these I have chosen: HIC + tropical storm + Hurricane Wilma (which happened a few months after Katrina) and looking at its effect on Florida – why? – because everyone had been so critical of how Katrina was managed that all areas in the US subject to storms had had a severe wake-up call and had started reviewing procedure – and Wilma was responded to in a way more appropriate to an HIC LIC + tectonic event - Haiti

The what, the where and the how
Hurricane Wilma

Hurricane Wilma hits Florida
When? Monday October 24, 2005 around 5 o'clock in the evening How bad? Winds of 195km with gusts up to 215km ( cat 3) Storm surge – less than expected at 2.4m

Impacts Death: 6 directly caused by the hurricane due to wind-blown debris and another 23 caused during the response. Infrastructure damage- several flyover junctions were severely damages. High rise offices and flats also received damage too. Mobile homes, quite popular with retirees were turned into match wood 3 million + lost power some for a couple of weeks Water was contaminated and had to be boiled in many areas for a week or 2

Economic impact Recall the forces of the storm was greater in the LICs than the HICs but look at the cost? Work buildings in Florida mostly were effected too which prevented the people from going to work which added to the cost. Also Florida's sugar and citrus industry was hard hit; the cropping season had already started and had to be halted indefinitely. Damage to sugarcane crops was critical and widespread.“

The what, the where and the how
Haiti

When? 12th January 2010 at (about tea-time) local time It was a 7.0 magnitude earthquake. But as we know this only tells as the size of the earthquake not the damage it does - see over Haiti Earthquake

What can you see from this?

Impacts 217,000–230,000 dead 300,000 injured 1,000,000 homeless
250,000 residences and 30,000 commercial buildings collapsed or severely damaged This is a big earthquake, but why were the number so high? Were they high in fact or is this reasonable for an earthquake that size? Let’s see

Why did so many people die in Haiti
Three Earthquakes OK, so the Italian earthquake was much less powerful – less than 1/10 of the Chinese one but … And what about New Zealand?

A 7.0-magnitude earthquake has struck off New Zealand's South Island at 4.35 on Saturday morning, 4th September 2010. The epicentre was 55km north-west of Christchurch, at a depth of 12 km – and no-none was killed! But as you can see, there is still a fair amount of mess – might not have been so good a result if it had been when the streets were busy.

But is not just deaths: With injury and homelessness, the story is a little different The difference appears to be much more in line with the quake strength – although Haiti’s injuries appear higher than expected

Managing potential disasters involves taking actions both before and after the event.
One of the issues that is part of living in a hazardous area is to assess the risk and then decide how to deal with it: Carry out risk assessments As a result of these assessments, adjust behaviour – this could be implement training and information, change building design, change zoning laws, move settlements – lots of things Improve prediction Devise a plan of action and the resources to manage the hazard after the event.

Predicting potential disasters
Predicting some hazards is easier than others: Tropical storms take time to build over the ocean, and satellite observation together with weather forecasting can estimate the path and the speed of movement with increasing accuracy. This technology is readily available to all who need it, rich and poor alike. There are enough developed countries in every region who have the scientists, technology and resources to monitor whole areas and the LICs have good access to this information.

Predicting some hazards is easier than others: Predicting volcanic eruptions is becoming increasingly sophisticated. There are a number of tools which show when an eruption is becoming more likely. But there is no certainty that episodes that do happen before every eruption, will necessarily imply that an eruption will occur this time. This means that it is often difficult to persuade people to evacuate in time. Warning Signs Before an eruption, magma moves into the area beneath the volcano and collects in a magma chamber. As it comes closer to the surface, the magma releases gases. The movement of magma produces small earthquakes and vibrations. Magma gathering in a chamber causes slight swelling of the volcano's slopes. Gases released near the volcano can be measured for changes in quantity and makeup. How are these monitored?

Seismicity: Changes in seismic activity measured by a seismograph always occurs as volcanoes awaken and prepare to erupt. Electric current: Since magma gives off electric currents, electric meters are used to spot rising magma levels by measuring its electric current. Gravimeters can also detect flowing magma. Temperature change: Scientists also take temperatures and gauge gas by using a Landsat satellite. The satellite uses infrared sensors to detect temperatures and changes in volcanoes. Gas Emissions: increases in sulphur emissions are another predictor of volcanic activity. There can be monitored by stationary electronic boxes which can radio linked to the base. . Ground Deformation: Swelling of the volcano signals that magma has accumulated near the surface. The tiltmeter is a sensor that uses a laser beam to find the rising or lowering of magma levels by measuring changes in ground elevation (angle). GPS (Global Positioning System) uses satellites plot exact positions and can also be used to sense bulges occurring.

Earthquakes are the most difficult to predict: Despite considerable research efforts by seismologists, scientifically reproducible predictions cannot yet be made to a specific day or month. However, for well-understood faults seismic hazard assessment maps can estimate the probability that an earthquake of a given size will affect a given location over a certain number of years. The overall ability to predict earthquakes either on an individual basis or on a statistical basis remains remote.

Preparing for potential disasters
Preparing for tropical storms: Since prediction is not a major problem, there is every opportunity to prepare for them. In HICs for the most part, every thing that can be done is. But in LICs, they have neither the funding nor the personnel to do it all. Ideally: Action plans and practices for the police and emergency services are essential Evacuation plans are a major element. For example, since the disaster of Katrina when little or no public evacuation transport was organised (even though the yellow school buses rotted in a waterlogged car park), coach companies have contracts in place should the need arise again.

Preparing for tropical storms: Also supplies of water, medical help etc need to be ready to go. They need to plan where the evacuees should go to. Families are encouraged to have individual plans, like emergency boxes with radios, batteries, first aid, essential documents etc and contact details for friends and relatives. Also there are building modification which can make a house less likely to be damaged and storm proof local buildings where local housing is inadequate to survive floodwater and high winds For examples of this see for efforts made in Bangladesh

Preparing for volcanic eruptions: Local Plan: Using all tools available assess the danger. Be in contact with all emergency services. Plan where evacuees can go – open schools and community buildings outside immediate danger area. Plan for water, food, medical care, bedding and clothing to be available. Establish who can drive out and who cannot and arrange for the removal of any unable to transport themselves out of danger, if need be. Use local radio/TV to inform the population of what is going on. When evacuation becomes essential, make sure all facilities are open and have staff and provisions. Watch the situation to see when the population can safely return home. Have ready temporary medium term accommodation (tents etc) in case building damage has been significant . Have a means of supplying clean water and food if there has been a breakdown of either of these supplies. Have a plan ready to help repair/rebuild housing and other essentials, e.g. schools, water, power etc

Preparing for volcanic eruptions: Personal Plan: If you live close to a volcano, plan carefully. Produce a check list and have a sturdy box to keep valuables. Have a safe place to go to and have an emergency bag ready to go with you. Include sufficient water, food and medical equipment supplies, when travelling and at base location (minimum 72hours). Include a portable radio, torch and spare batteries, spare clothing and essential documents and cash. When there is an evacuation notice sent out, do not hang about. In the run yup there maybe earthquakes associated with the eruption – carry out the usual drill for earthquakes (see later) Heavy rain + an eruption can lead to landslides which maybe very hot. Avoid coming into contact. During a volcanic eruption, sulphur fumes may make breathing difficult – have a mask in your kit. Once things have quietened down, wait to be told to go back – the volcanologists may know something you don’t. For a maga list ‘ Grab and Go Bag’ check out

Preparing for earthquakes: As the prediction is so poor, there is little than can be done before hand to prepare for it. So the need for quake-proof buildings and training as to what you should do, is about the sum total of preparation.

Some small things a homeowner can do NOW before the quake hits: Fasten shelves securely to walls. Place large or heavy objects on lower shelves. Store breakable items such as bottled foods, glass, and china in low, closed cabinets with latches. Hang heavy items such as pictures and mirrors away from beds, couches, and anywhere people sit. Brace overhead light fixtures. Repair defective electrical wiring and leaky gas connections. These are potential fire risks. Secure a water heater by strapping it to the wall studs and bolting it to the floor. Repair any deep cracks in ceilings or foundations. Get expert advice if there are signs of structural defects. Store weed killers, pesticides, and flammable products securely in closed cabinets with latches and on bottom shelves.

Teach children how and when to call police, or fire department and which radio station to tune to for emergency information. Teach all family members how and when to turn off gas, electricity, and water. Importantly, know what to do if the quake hits – practice often.

Know What to Do During an Earthquake Stay as safe as possible during an earthquake. Be aware that some earthquakes are actually foreshocks and a larger earthquake might occur. Minimize your movements to a few steps to a nearby safe place and if you are indoors, stay there until the shaking has stopped and you are sure exiting is safe. If indoors DROP to the ground; take COVER by getting under a sturdy table or other piece of furniture; and HOLD ON until the shaking stops. If there isn’t a table or desk near you, cover your face and head with your arms and crouch in an inside corner of the building. Stay away from glass, windows, outside doors and walls, and anything that could fall, such as lighting fixtures or furniture. Stay in bed if you are there when the earthquake strikes. Hold on and protect your head with a pillow, unless you are under a heavy light fixture that could fall. In that case, move to the nearest safe place. Use a doorway for shelter only if it is in close proximity to you and if you know it is a strongly supported, loadbearing doorway. Stay inside until the shaking stops and it is safe to go outside. Research has shown that most injuries occur when people inside buildings attempt to move to a different location inside the building or try to leave. Be aware that the electricity may go out or the sprinkler systems or fire alarms may turn on. DO NOT use the lifts.

Know What to Do During an Earthquake If outdoors Stay there. Move away from buildings, streetlights, and utility wires. Once in the open, stay there until the shaking stops. The greatest danger exists directly outside buildings, at exits and alongside exterior walls. Many of the 120 fatalities from the 1933 Long Beach earthquake occurred when people ran outside of buildings only to be killed by falling debris from collapsing walls. Ground movement during an earthquake is seldom the direct cause of death or injury. Most earthquake-related casualties result from collapsing walls, flying glass, and falling objects. If in a moving vehicle Stop as quickly as safety permits and stay in the vehicle. Avoid stopping near or under buildings, trees, overpasses, and utility wires. Proceed cautiously once the earthquake has stopped. Avoid roads, bridges, or ramps that might have been damaged by the earthquake. If trapped under debris Do not light a match. Do not move about or kick up dust. Cover your mouth with a handkerchief or clothing. Tap on a pipe or wall so rescuers can locate you. Use a whistle if one is available. Shout only as a last resort. Shouting can cause you to inhale dangerous amounts of dust.

Know What to Do After an Earthquake Expect aftershocks. These secondary shockwaves are usually less violent than the main quake but can be strong enough to do additional damage to weakened structures and can occur in the first hours, days, weeks, or even months after the quake. Listen to a battery-operated radio or television. Listen for the latest emergency information. Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Open cabinets cautiously. Beware of objects that can fall off shelves. Stay away from damaged areas. Stay away unless your assistance has been specifically requested by police, fire, or relief organizations. Return home only when authorities say it is safe. Be aware of possible tsunamis if you live in coastal areas. These are also known as seismic sea waves (mistakenly called "tidal waves"). When local authorities issue a tsunami warning, assume that a series of dangerous waves is on the way. Stay away from the beach. Help injured or trapped persons. Remember to help your neighbors who may require special assistance such as infants, the elderly, and people with disabilities. Give first aid where appropriate. Do not move seriously injured persons unless they are in immediate danger of further injury. Call for help

Know What to Do After an Earthquake Clean up spilled medicines, bleaches, gasoline or other flammable liquids immediately. Leave the area if you smell gas or fumes from other chemicals. Inspect the entire length of chimneys for damage. Unnoticed damage could lead to a fire. Inspect utilities. Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or hear blowing or hissing noise, open a window and quickly leave the building. Turn off the gas at the outside main valve if you can and call the gas company from a neighbor's home. If you turn off the gas for any reason, it must be turned back on by a professional. Look for electrical system damage. If you see sparks or broken or frayed wires, or if you smell hot insulation, turn off the electricity at the main fuse box or circuit breaker. If you have to step in water to get to the fuse box or circuit breaker, call an electrician first for advice. Check for sewage and water lines damage. If you suspect sewage lines are damaged, avoid using the toilets and call a plumber. If water pipes are damaged, contact the water company and avoid using water from the tap. You can obtain safe water by melting ice cubes.

You may have noticed that many of the personal instructions are for people who live in HICs. It is authorities in these countries that have the time and money to publish the guidance. There appears to be an assumption that money will be available for essentials, even if they are expensive. Also that the necessary materials will be there somehow. But once you consider MICs or LICs, the money and materials will not be there for a quick fix – think about the Pakistani floods, where people are still waiting, after many days, for basic food supplies and clean water. This is because emergency aid is usually only available from the International community and it takes time to gather the materials and personnel and set up a working system. These poorer countries, and even those who are well on the way to being developed, do not have the backup to cover disasters – although some like Bangladesh do their best.

Preparing for Wilma Friday October 21st: There was close monitoring of the hurricane as it tracked across Cuba and then stalled over the Yucatan Peninsular in Mexico ETA was either later Sunday or sometime on Monday County Emergency Management Committee up and running throughout Florida Saturday October 22nd : Mandatory evacuations were order for the southern tip – Florida Keys, and also from other low-lying areas and for those living in mobile home, and, while people were encouraged to go North, if they wanted there was an evacuation centre available at the University and in 2 other centres. The tolls on the Interstate Highways were openned to relieve traffic jams. Schools and government offices were close for the Monday.

Preparing for Wilma By Sunday October 23rd about 50+ refuges were open and manned By Monday morning October 24th this had risen to 123 refuges with 33,189 evacuees with 2,177 Special Needs evacuees . The number of hotel rooms available outside the areas of immediate danger are monitored and updated regularly 380,000 people were already without power as the wind picked up Conference calls with counties were to be conducted at 1115 hrs and 1715 hrs daily. The National guard were out in Munroe, Collier, Dade and Broward. Curfews were in place Munroe and Lee.

Preparing for the worst in Haiti
Basically they had not done anything. The last 2 major earthquakes were 1860 and The building regulations were non-existent and most people lived in shanties that were not really legal anyway. There was no practices, no plans for disaster management, no back-up supplies. Besides which, they were still reeling from Hurricanes Fay, Gustav, Hanna, and Ike in 2008 in which Haiti suffered over 1000 deaths, 593 injured and 23,000 homes destroyed and more 85,000 damaged. About 800,000 people were affected--8% of Haiti's total population. The flood wiped out 70% of Haiti's crops, resulting in dozens of deaths of children due to malnutrition in the months following the storms. Damage was estimated at over $1 billion, which amounted to over 5% of GDP. But when you examine what Haiti was like before all this, it is hardly surprising.

Haitian vital statistics
Ranks 149th of 182 countries on the Human Development Index. 80% of the population lives on less than $2 a day. An estimated 2.4 million people are food insecure. Highest malnutrition rate in the region—more than 20% of children are chronically malnourished. One-third of all babies are born underweight. Western hemisphere’s highest maternal and infant mortality rates; the highest HIV/AIDS rates outside sub-Saharan Africa. Consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world. 60% of energy needs are met through use of charcoal, contributing to 98 percent deforestation.

Immediate short term response to disasters
With all disasters, the initial response should, at best, be fairly similar, and grouped around: What does our well rehearsed plan say? Who, what and where are the most immediate needs to save life? What materials, resources and personnel are needed where? Do we have them readily available and can we reach those who need it? If not ask for help as soon as you know you do not have the resources to do it yourself. What resources are needed to sustain life? Food, water, housing, etc? Assess immediate needs for repair and put in place road and water repairs, communication networks etc.

Immediate short term response to disasters
The answer to these questions will vary from HIC to LIC. For example, emergency housing could be plastic sheets in an LIC but this would be totally unacceptable in an HIC – after Katrina for example many thousands were provided with mobile homes – some still live in them! After Wilma, there were comments that water still had to be boiled 10 days later - how dreadful! In Haiti, water is still delivered in tankers months later. The availability of helicopters for examples will vary greatly from place to place – vital if you are to deliver essential supplies when the roads have been destroyed. Often for LICs, these essentials take days to be shipped in by foreign donor governments, the UN and NGOs – and in some cases, the money to fund the supplies has to wait for appeals to be put out in HICs and the money to be given, to fund the purchase- the Pakistani monsoon floods in August 2010

Wilma – short term response
Tuesday Morning The RED areas were under local emergency powers. The number of shelters and evacuees had not changed much Boil water notices have been issued for several areas 3,149,479 residents without power State of Emergency has been declared Roads, phones and buildings are being inspected prior to debris clearance and repair beginning 1855 Trucks with Water and 250 trucks of ice are being sent out, together with 2 Trucks Shelf Stable Meals (remember Katrina – 4 days wasn’t it?) 9 Power generators had arrived 8,320 tarps were on order – temporary repairs for people homes Make a note of the trucks

By Friday(28th ) Morning Food, Water and Ice: Trucks shipped to Points of Distribution today: Water: 168 Trucks Ice: 300 Trucks Food: 85 Trucks General Shelters: 22, Population: 2, special needs Law Enforcement and Military Support Florida National Guard: 3,445 Law Enforcement Officers: 960 Boiled water for Brevard, Broward, Charlotte, Collier, Glades/Hendry, Highlands, Indian River, Lee, Martin, Miami-Dade, Monroe, Okeechobee, Osceola County, Palm Beach. How have things changed?

By Friday November 4th Trucks: Water: 18 Trucks Ice: 3 Trucks Food: 4 Trucks Tarps: 2 Truck (making 58 altogether) Food stamp distribution points where anyone who had suffered loss of home/job could claim without the usual paperwork Shops mostly open again. But boiled water notices still in place but far fewer without power. How have things changed?

Haiti – short term disaster response
"Normally the response moves from search and rescue and medical needs, to helping those who have lost homes with shelter, to water sanitation and food. Then comes more longer-term recovery programmes, like re-building homes and offering families micro-loans." The Red Cross dispatched a logistics team from the UK to create another entry point to Haiti, he said. We need some kind of trucking system to transfer goods into Haiti from the [neighbouring] Dominican Republic Easing the gridlock at the airport which has blocking aid getting to the victims was now a priority. The Americans sent in army personnel and their equipment. Their outgoing priority was to get their nationals out quickly "Port-au-Prince airport is subject to restrictions on fuel and handling equipment and the port is badly damaged.

Oxfam said its priority was "always" water and sanitation. The charity is preparing to send up to 10 tonnes of water, sanitation, health and shelter equipment - valued at around £70,000 - from its Oxford UK warehouse on Saturday afternoon. Equipment includes emergency sheeting for shelter and latrines, water tubing to create pipes, water purification chemicals and tablets and buckets to enable people to carry and store water. Kate Akhtar, senior emergency programme officer for Care International, agreed that water and sanitation were "key". It had 600,000 water purification tablets and enough stocks of high protein biscuits to feed 60,000 families. Large parts of the Haitian capital have been devastated OXFAM said staff already based in Haiti had been providing shovels to clear rubble and search for trapped victims, and 17 international humanitarian experts had arrived in Haiti on Friday.

"Urban areas are always difficult, but there is so much deforestation in Haiti that it will be difficult to source items to create shelter." Communication was also a problem, with text messaging the only way to communicate with their staff, she said. ActionAid said aid was "trickling in" but the situation was "chaotic". A team of international staff from ActionAid, including some from the UK and Brazil, were travelling to Haiti and should be in the country by Sunday. Tearfund was sending a disaster assessment team to Haiti over the weekend with a view to helping in the medium- to long-term, but was already working with partners on the ground. As well as delivering shelter, food and sanitary kits for women, ActionAid would provide psycho-social support, a spokeswoman said.

FOOD: The UN World Food Programme (WFP) has warned that while the relief effort in Haiti is beginning to gain its footing, providing food for more than two million people a day represents the most complex task it has ever faced. WATER: There is an acute shortage of drinking water. The water supply system, which before the disaster only provided 40% of the population of Port-au-Prince with clean water, has effectively collapsed . Relief agencies have tried to buy goods locally, but local markets affected by the earthquake have been slow to reopen, and Haiti's subsistence farms have been unable to ramp up production. This has forced the WFP to use nearly all of its stores of food which do not require water. Aid agencies are shipping in bottled water and water purification tablets. But many people, have complained that they have received little, if any, of either.

Long term response to disasters
This involves 2 phases: 1. Completing any restorative work that cannot be done in the short-medium term, for example major reconstruction like road/rail reconstruction and helping to re-establish agriculture and other production. 2. Planning for the future: risk assessment, adjustment, improving prediction.

One of the reasons why Florida (and incidentally New Zealand more recently) go off so lightly is …
They had changed their planning laws. Building have to be built to withstand locally expected disasters. These homes’ concrete wall system starts with a steel-reinforcing cage consisting of a 15cm square steel mesh and vertical steel bars placed at 1.2m inches on-centre. When finished they look like this

Wilma – examples of Forward planning
August 6, 2010 Five years later, the aftermath of Hurricane Wilma and other storms continues to drive forward city actions to prevent some of the power issues that followed that storm. At its July 22 meeting, the Coconut Creek City Commission approved a $464,505 payment to Florida Power and Light for the second of three phases in a project to place a significant portion of utility lines in the city underground. August 4, 2010 Parkland city officials have ensured that the city is prepared to deal with debris it would have to contend with in case of a hurricane strike. City officials unanimously decided in favour of having a temporary debris management site (TDMS) within the city; Parkland has not had such a facility before. They later authorized staff to enter into a contract with D&J Enterprises for emergency debris management and disaster recovery assistance. September 21st, 2010: look at the blog -

Haiti – medium and long term
Even 9 months on, Haiti is barely out of the initial phase. They are only just beginning to move people into intermediate housing. The major hold-up is caused by lax and lost (through earthquake damage) land ownership documents. On some pieces of land there are 6 claimants, all of which, it would appear have some documentation to prove their case. The NGOs are very reticent about putting up even intermediate housing on land who ownership is in dispute. This type of housing is due to last for 3 years, although many foretell that it will still be being lived for a great deal longer. But there are still tons of rubble to be cleared, but removing smashed houses is fraught with who owns them? So this is not happening at anything like the rate it should be.

From: http://lindym.wordpress.com/category/haiti/
The wood frame and tarp wall shelters have metal roofs and are built to withstand a Category 1 hurricane. Plans to upgrade the shelters to more permanent materials will allow families to move the structure when land is secured.

A girl ties her hair next to her tent after it fell down due to heavy rain at a camp for earthquake survivors in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, Saturday, Sept. 25, A storm blasted through Haiti's capital on Friday, killing at least five people as it tore down trees, billboards and tent homes, authorities said. Sept 9th 2010 Antoine Fesnell, right, prays as his daughters Nicole, 9, centre, and Antoine, 6, look on during mass in the rubble of the Notre Dame Cathedral in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, Sunday Sept. 26, Fesnell's wife died in the magnitude-7 earthquake that struck Haiti on Jan. 12, 2010 and killed a government-estimated 300,000 people and left millions homeless.

Haiti – medium and long term - agriculture
Another area of medium/ling term response is to improve job prospects and get agriculture back on track. Even before the earthquake that struck Haiti on 12 January, half the population suffered from malnutrition, three-quarters survived on less than US$2 a day, and 60 percent of the country's food was imported. It has been estimated that for every US$1 invested in agriculture, FAO estimates that US$40-60 worth of food will be produced, sufficient to feed one family for several months. But of the initial US$23 million requested as part of the UN Flash Appeal for Haiti's immediate agricultural needs, only twelve percent has been funded.

Haiti – medium and long term - agriculture
FAO has distributed 1,074 tons of grain and pulse seed to 72,000 farming families in the areas worst hit by the earthquake in January More than 100,000 hand tools and almost 2,500 pieces of equipment to help with post-harvesting have also been provided. In addition, plans are underway to reach an additional 10,000 urban households around Port au Price, Ganthier and Cabaret with seed and fertiliser to enable families to establish mobile gardens. Other development projects recently launched in Haiti include an 18-month programme funded by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) to repair irrigation systems, build 300 community and family gardens and provide seeds and tools to 9,000 families. The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) will also invest US$200 million over five years to improve land titling, promote farming techniques to reduce soil erosion, and increase market access for farmers. According to FAO, the long term priorities include improving natural resource management, food security and nutrition. In order to continue to reduce dependence on imports, FAO will continue to implement ongoing projects to strengthening farmers' organisations to improve their capacity to multiply quality bean, vegetable, maize, rice and sorghum seeds. Promotion of fruit trees such as mangoes, avocados and banana to reforest Haiti and provide food and income will also continue

Haiti – medium and long term - industry
The only industry of any significance is the garment trade, where the pay is low – about $3 a day (£1.90), barely a living wage – but much better than the alternative – no job at all and hand-outs. It is hoped the number of international investors will increase, as recently the US have passed the HOPE agreement, whereby any Haitian garments can be imported into the US free of import duty.

Haiti – medium and long term - industry
The Coca-Cola Company announced the creation of the Haiti Hope Project, to create opportunity for 25,000 Haitian mango farmers and their families by supporting the development of a sustainable mango juice industry in the country. This five-year project, currently estimated at $7.5 million seeks to double the income of these farmers. It is also aimed to set up a processing industry in Haiti rather than as initially, export the fruit for processing elsewhere. The Coca-Cola Company has been a part of the Haitian community since 1927 together with their local bottling partner, Brasserie de la Couronne, is the largest private-sector employer in the country. TechnoServe (a not-for profit enterprise) will help Haitian mango farmers grow their crops more efficiently, produce additional crops to boost their incomes, and create businesses that will allow them to access markets. Consumers can contribute to this Project by purchasing Odwalla Haiti Hope Mango Lime-Aid launched in the United States in March 2010 and a similar Odwalla Haiti Hope beverage to launch early summer in Canada percent of the profits will be directed to the Project.

In conclusion Florida after Wilma was disrupted but not really stalled for than a few weeks, while Haiti's recovery as not even really begun. But do keep an eye on the blog, using these searches, as I am trying add updates on both of these disasters whenever I find them: And if any of you find anything, if you don’t want to add it yourselves , just send me the link!

Revision of Unit A3 Hazards

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