1. Handling Gridded Data: Topography and Projections GIS in Water Resources Fall 2014 by Ayse Kilic with materials from David G. Tarboton, Utah State University and from ESRI software

2. Calculation of slope on a raster using – ArcGIS method based in finite differences – D8 steepest single flow direction – D  steepest outward slope on grid centered triangular facets Map Projections – State Plane Coordinate System – UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate System) Learning Objectives

3. Spatial Surfaces used in Hydrology Elevation Surface — the ground surface elevation at each point -- Expressed as a Digital Elevation Model for Gridded Data

4. Types of Elevation Data available DataSpatial referencePixel size Z units Bit Depth GTOPO (Global Topography) GCS_WGS_1984 Decimal degrees WGS 1984 30 arcsec (1 km) m 16-bit signed/un signed Integer SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) GCS_WGS_1984 Decimal degrees WGS 1984 90 mm 16-bit signed Integer NED 30 (National Elevation Data) GDC_North_America_1983 Decimal degrees NAD 1983 1 arcsec (30 m) mFloat NED 10 GDC_North_America_1983 Decimal degrees NAD 1983 1/3 arcsec (10 m) mFloat Lidar (DEM/DSM) NAD83_HARN_StatePlane_Oregon_North Foot NAD 1983 HARN 3 ftftFloat

5. Slope Handout Determine the length, slope and azimuth of the line AB. http://snr.unl.edu/kilic/giswr/2014/Slope.pdf

6. 3-D detail of the Tongue river at the WY/Montana border from LIDAR. Roberto Gutierrez University of Texas at Austin LIDAR from aircraft or from the ground can provide amazing detail on elevation, including individual tree heights and hydraulic channels

7. Topographic Slope Used to determine how (quickly) water flows downhill and concentrates into streams Topographic slope can be determined from a DEM

8. Topographic Slope There are three alternative sets of inputs (choose one) – Surface derivative  z (dz/dx, dz/dy) – Vector with x and y components (S x, S y ). Slope in x and y direction. – Vector with magnitude (slope) and direction (aspect) (S,  )

9. Calculates the maximum rate of change in value from that cell to its neighbors Calculates for each cell Represents the rate of change of elevation for each digital elevation model (DEM) cell (slope). Slope is the first derivative of a DEM The lower the slope value, the flatter the terrain; the higher the slope value, the steeper the terrain. ArcGIS “Slope” tool

10. Definition of X, Y, and Z in 3D space Z axis is the direction that elevation changes (up or down) Y axis is the direction that Y has a changing value (North-South in ArcGIS) X axis is the direction that X has a changing value (East-West in ArcGIS) Origin is the location of the point of interest (pixel or grid cell) X, and Y are horizontal distances Z is the vertical distance The X, Y, Z axes are at right angles to one another

11. Definition of Slope Run is the horizontal distance calculated using X and Y Rise is the vertical distance calculated using Z (elevation) Slope ranges (-90 0, +90 0 ) or (-infinity %, +infinity %)

12. How Slope works Run is the horizontal distance calculated using X and Y Rise is the vertical distance calculated using Z (elevation)

13. Pythagorean theorem Used to calculate Run where a =ΔY and b = ΔX The calculated “c” is the “Run”

14. ArcGIS “Slope” tool abc def ghi x y g d a h e b i f c x y Calculates slope for each cell. In this illustration, it is for Cell “e” For each cell, the Slope tool calculates the maximum of the rate of change in value from that cell to each of its eight neighborsSlope The negative sign in front of the equations is because x increases to the right (east) and y increases to the north. Now dz/dx is + if z increases with increasing x.

15. ArcGIS “Slope” tool The two equations for dz/dx and dz/dy are simplified from the first equation below. The basis for that equation is illustrated in the Figure and represents an average of central finite differences over each of the three rows of cells, with the middle row counting twice as it appears in averages on each side. g d a h e b i f c x y The negative sign in front of the equations is because we are computing uphill slope

16. Definition of Azimuth Y axis is the direction that Y has a changing value (South to North in ArcGIS) X axis is the direction that X has a changing value (West to East in ArcGIS) This is my grid cell location

17. Solve for α by Inverting the Tangent Function (ArcTan) The other way to write ArcTan is Tan -1 Definition of Azimuth Azimuth= Convert from radians to degrees (180/π) Azimuth is the angle between North and any desired direction you want to travel

18. ArcGIS Aspect – the steepest downslope direction If I pour water on the ground, which direction does it flow? Aspect is the azimuth associated with the steepest downhill slope. Therefore, we use slopes instead of distances in the tangent function. In Arc, with grid cells it is easiest to calculate Aspect using the ratio of slopes (dz/dx) and (dz/dy). = Aspect

19. Example for topographic slope 30 807463 696756 605248 a bc d e f g hi 145.2 o Mesh spacing=30 m Slope/Aspect at cell e? Note that this is the slope in Uphill direction (it is a positive number) Converts slope from m/m to degrees (180/π)

20. Example for Aspect 30 807463 696756 605248 a bc d e f g hi Mesh spacing=30 m Aspect at cell e? One more adjustment: The above Aspect is in the direction of increasing elevation (increasing dz/dx). We need to add 180 o to this calculated aspect to get the direction of decreasing z (i.e., the steepest downhill slope) 145.2 o -34.8 o

21. The Atan function is multivalued on the full circle and only unique in a range of 180 degrees. To unambiguously determine the direction from two components you really need the atan2 function that keeps the sign on y and x components separately. For example, let y = y component of a vector x = x component of a vector atan(x/y) gives the direction of the vector as an angle (with the ratio x/y since angle here is measured from north). But x/y is the same value if y is positive and x negative, or x positive and y negative. So once you take the ratio x/y, if you get a negative number you do not know which (y or x) was negative. A way to resolve this is angle = atan(x/y) if(0 < angle < 180 and dz/dx < 0) then aspect = angle + 180 (flip the direction because dz/dx is negative) else aspect = angle endif

22. 32 16 8 64 4 128 1 2 D8 steepest single flow direction (Eight Direction Pour Point Model) ESRI Direction encoding (ArcGIS) In a gridded system, water can only flow to one of eight adjacent cells The direction of flow is determined by the direction of steepest descent: Maximum_drop = (change_in_z-value / distance) * 100 This is maximum percentage drop. Defined as “Hydrologic slope” in ArcGIS

23. 807463 696756 605248 30 Slope: Hydrologic Slope (Flow Direction Tool) Find Direction of Steepest Descent (ArcGIS) 807463 696756 605248 30 For diagonal direction, the denominator for slope includes square root of 2 Slope:

24. ? Limitation due to 8 grid directions. The true flow direction follows the red arrow. However, we can only choose one of the blue arrows because we have to use one of eight adjacent cells.

25. The D  Algorithm Tarboton, D. G., (1997), "A New Method for the Determination of Flow Directions and Contributing Areas in Grid Digital Elevation Models," Water Resources Research, 33(2): 309-319.) (http://www.engineering.usu.edu/cee/faculty/dtarb/dinf.pdf)

26. The D  Algorithm If  1 does not fit within the triangle, the angle is chosen along the steepest edge or diagonal resulting in a slope and direction equivalent to D8  zozo z1z1 z2z2 z3z3

27. D∞ Example 30 zozo z7z7 z8z8 14.9 o 284.9 o 807463 696756 605248 The tool is available at http://hydrology.usu.edu/taudem/taudem5/documentation.html z1z1 z2z2 z3z3 z4z4 z5z5 z6z6

28. Automating Processes using Model Builder Using a DEM tif file as input

29. Elevation (m) for Upper Klamath Lake Basin, OR

30. Elevation Contours for Wood River Valley Watershed of Upper Klamath Lake Basin

31. Slope (%) for Upper Klamath Lake Basin, OR (-infinity, + infinity)

32. Slope (Degree) for Upper Klamath Lake Basin, OR

33. Aspect (Degree) for Upper Klamath Lake Basin, OR

34. Percentage Drop (Degree) for Upper Klamath

35. Flow Direction Integer raster whose values range from 1 to 255 32 16 8 64 4 128 1 2

36. Hillshade Azimuth The azimuth is the angular direction of the sun, measured from north in clockwise degrees from 0 to 360. An azimuth of 90º is east. The default azimuth is 315º (NW). Altitude The altitude is the slope or angle of the illumination source above the horizon. The units are in degrees, from 0 (on the horizon) to 90 (overhead). The default is 45 degrees. Hypothetical illumination of a surface by determining illumination values for each cell in a raster. It does this by setting a position for a hypothetical light source and calculating the illumination values of each cell in relation to neighboring cells.

37. Hillshade

38. Map Projection Parameters

39. State Plane Coordinate Systems 39 Like UTM but customized to minimize error within States-1930 NAD27 – feet NAD83 – feet or meters

40. State Plane Coordinate Systems 40 TM for North South oriented states Lambert Conformal Conic- East West orientation Depending on TM or LCC, zones baselines and meridians positioned differently Baselines are placed under the zones Southern Border and measured North from there

41. State Plane zones State plane zones of Minnesota (1/6 of the zone width) and details of standard parallel placement (Lambert Conformal Conic)

42. State Plane Coordinate System-overview Used by state/local governments – Units are feet (now appearing in meters) Panhandle of Alaska: oblique Mercator (at angle) N/S states (Missouri): Transverse Mercator projection E/W states: Lambert Conformal Conic for an East-West State (California, Nebraska) Doesn’t make sense? – States divided into smaller zones – Distortion is extremely small for local area Coordinates: SW corner is 0, 0. Mapping large areas (over >1 zone) is trouble!

44. What are the coordinates of the origin (  o, o ) and the corresponding (X o, Y o ) ? (  o, o ) = (39° 50’ N, 100° W) ( o,  o ) = (100° W, 39° 50’ N) (X o, Y o ) = (1640416.667, 0.000) Don’t get confused. “X” is always associated with Longitude, “Y” with Latitude

45. Zones in the Texas State Plane

46. 46 Line of intersection at a central meridian. Distances measured with respect to the central meridian and from the equator in meters 60 zones around the Earth from East to West False Northing and False Easting Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate System

47. 47 False Easting to avoid negative values: Central meridian is denoted as 500,000 not “0” Measurements are shown as positive So if a point is 11,254 meters west of the central meridian, it is shown as 500,000- 11,254 or 488,746. False northing. In the southern hemisphere, 10,000,000 is the value assigned to the equator. So something 120,000 meters south of the equator is depicted as 9,880,000 Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate System

48. Word in UTM Grids UTM zones – lower 48 states

49. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM Zone 14) Elevation (feet)

50. UTM (Location of N at Memorial football stadium) (X o, Y o ) = ( 693,500 4,521,383) Meters Base map (streets) is from ArcGIS.com

51. ArcGIS.Com ready to use maps including elevation services http://www.arcgis.com/features/maps/earth.html Land Cover Soils Elevation

52. Elevation Services http://elevation.arcgis.com/arcgis/services

53. Summary Concepts The elevation surface represented by a grid digital elevation model is used to derive slope important for surface flow The eight direction pour point model approximates the surface flow using eight discrete grid directions. The D  vector surface flow model approximates the surface flow as a flow vector from each grid cell apportioned between down slope grid cells.