1. LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick Hormones and the Endocrine System 賀爾蒙與內分泌系統 Chapter 45

2. Overview: The Body’s Long-Distance Regulators Animal hormones are chemical signals that are secreted into the circulatory system and communicate regulatory messages within the body Hormones reach all parts of the body, but only target cells 標的細胞 have receptors for that hormone Insect metamorphosis 變態 is regulated by hormones © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

3. Two systems coordinate communication throughout the body: the endocrine system and the nervous system The endocrine system secretes hormones that coordinate slower but longer-acting responses including reproduction, development, energy metabolism, growth, and behavior The nervous system conveys high-speed electrical signals along specialized cells called neurons; these signals regulate other cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

4. Figure 45.1

5. Figure 45.UN01

6. Concept 45.1: Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to target receptors, triggering specific response pathways Endocrine signaling is just one of several ways that information is transmitted between animal cells 內分泌訊號是動物體內細胞間傳訊工具 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 化學訊息需要有標的細胞的受體結合 然後啟動特定反應

7. Intercellular Communication The ways that signal are transmitted between animal cells are classified by two criteria –The type of secreting cell –The route taken by the signal in reaching its target © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

8. Endocrine Signaling Hormones secreted into extracellular fluids by endocrine cells reach their targets via the bloodstream Endocrine signaling maintains homeostasis 體內衡定 mediates responses to stimuli 對刺激媒介反應 regulates growth 調節生長 development 發育 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

9. Types of Secreted Signaling Molecules Secreted chemical signals include –Hormones 荷爾蒙 ( 激素 ) –Local regulators 局部調節素 –Neurotransmitters 神經傳導物質 –Neurohormones 神經性荷爾蒙 –Pheromones 費落蒙

10. Hormones Endocrine signals (hormones) are secreted into extracellular fluids and travel via the bloodstream Endocrine glands are ductless and secrete hormones directly into surrounding fluid Hormones mediate responses to environmental stimuli and regulate growth, development, and reproduction

11. Figure 45.2 (a) Endocrine signaling Blood vessel Response Synapse Response (b) Paracrine signaling (c) Autocrine signaling Neuron (d) Synaptic signaling Neurosecretory cell Blood vessel (e) Neuroendocrine signaling

12. Paracrine and Autocrine Signaling Local regulators are molecules that act over short distances, reaching target cells solely by diffusion In paracrine signaling, the target cells lie near the secreting cells In autocrine signaling, the target cell is also the secreting cell © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

13. Figure 45.2a (a) Endocrine signaling Blood vessel Response (b) Paracrine signaling (c) Autocrine signaling

14. Synaptic and Neuroendocrine Signaling In synaptic signaling, neurons form specialized junctions with target cells, called synapses 突觸 At synapses, neurons secrete molecules called neurotransmitters that diffuse short distances and bind to receptors on target cells. Neurotransmitters play a role in sensation, memory, cognition, and movement In neuroendocrine signaling, specialized neurosecretory cells secrete molecules called neurohormones that travel to target cells via the bloodstream © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

15. Figure 45.2b Synapse Response Neuron (d) Synaptic signaling Neurosecretory cell Blood vessel (e) Neuroendocrine signaling

16. Exocrine glands have ducts and secrete substances onto body surfaces or into body cavities (for example, tear ducts)

17. Signaling by Pheromones Members of the same animal species sometimes communicate with pheromones, chemicals that are released into the environment and used to communicate with other individuals in the species Pheromones serve many functions, including marking trails 蹤跡 leading to food, a wide range of functions that include defining territories 領域, warning of predators 警戒, and attracting potential mates 誘引 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

18. Figure 45.3

19. Endocrine Tissues and Organs In some tissues, endocrine cells are grouped together in ductless organs called endocrine glands Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into surrounding fluid These contrast with exocrine glands, which have ducts and which secrete substances onto body surfaces or into cavities © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

20. Figure 45.4 Major endocrine glands: Hypothalamus Pineal gland Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid glands (behind thyroid) Adrenal glands (atop kidneys) Pancreas Ovaries (female) Testes (male) Organs containing endocrine cells: Thymus Heart Liver Stomach Kidneys Small intestine

21. Chemical Classes of Hormones Three major classes of molecules function as hormones in vertebrates –Polypeptides 多肽 (proteins and peptides) –Amines derived from amino acids 胺類 –Steroid hormones 固醇類 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

22. Lipid-soluble hormones (steroid hormones) pass easily through cell membranes, while water- soluble hormones (polypeptides and amines) do not The solubility of a hormone correlates with the location of receptors inside or on the surface of target cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

23. Lipid-soluble (hydrophobic)Water-soluble (hydrophilic) PolypeptidesSteroids 0.8 nm InsulinCortisol Amines EpinephrineThyroxine Figure 45.5

24. Cellular Response Pathways Water and lipid soluble hormones differ in their paths through a body Water-soluble hormones are secreted by exocytosis, travel freely in the bloodstream, and bind to cell-surface receptors Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across cell membranes, travel in the bloodstream bound to transport proteins, and diffuse through the membrane of target cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

25. Hormone Receptor Location: Scientific Inquiry In the 1960s, researchers studied the accumulation of radioactive steroid hormones in rat tissue These hormones accumulated only in target cells that were responsive to the hormones These experiments led to the hypothesis that receptors for the steroid hormones are located inside the target cells Further studies have confirmed that receptors for lipid-soluble hormones such as steroids are located inside cells

26. Researchers hypothesized that receptors for water-soluble hormones would be located on the cell surface They injected a water-soluble hormone into the tissues of frogs The hormone triggered a response only when it was allowed to bind to cell surface receptors This confirmed that water-soluble receptors were on the cell surface

27. Fig. 45-4 MSH injected into melanocyte Nucleus Melanosomes do not disperse MSH injected into interstitial fluid (blue) Melanosomes disperse Melanocyte with melanosomes (black dots) RESULTS

28. Figure 45.6-1 Lipid- soluble hormone SECRETORY CELL Water- soluble hormone VIA BLOOD Signal receptor TARGET CELL (a) (b) Signal receptor Transport protein NUCLEUS

29. Figure 45.6-2 Lipid- soluble hormone SECRETORY CELL Water- soluble hormone VIA BLOOD Signal receptor TARGET CELL OR Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation (a) (b) Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation Signal receptor Transport protein NUCLEUS

30. Pathway for Water-Soluble Hormones Binding of a hormone to its receptor initiates a signal transduction pathway leading to responses in the cytoplasm, enzyme activation, or a change in gene expression © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

31. Signaling by any of these hormones involves three key events: –Reception 接受作用 –Signal transduction 訊息轉導作用 –Response 作用反應

32. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Water-Soluble Hormone Right-click slide / select”Play”

33. The hormone epinephrine has multiple effects in mediating the body’s response to short-term stress Epinephrine binds to receptors on the plasma membrane of liver cells This triggers the release of messenger molecules that activate enzymes and result in the release of glucose into the bloodstream © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

34. Figure 45.7-1 Epinephrine G protein Adenylyl cyclase G protein-coupled receptor GTP ATP cAMP Second messenger

35. Figure 45.7-2 Epinephrine G protein Adenylyl cyclase G protein-coupled receptor GTP ATP cAMP Second messenger Inhibition of glycogen synthesis Promotion of glycogen breakdown Protein kinase A

36. Pathway for Lipid-Soluble Hormones The response to a lipid-soluble hormone is usually a change in gene expression Steroids, thyroid hormones, and the hormonal form of vitamin D enter target cells and bind to protein receptors in the cytoplasm or nucleus Protein-receptor complexes then act as transcription factors in the nucleus, regulating transcription of specific genes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. cathelicidin ： antimicriobial peptide

37. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Animation: Lipid-Soluble Hormone Right-click slide / select”Play”

38. Figure 45.8-1 EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Hormone (estradiol) Estradiol (estrogen) receptor Plasma membrane Hormone-receptor complex

39. Figure 45.8-2 EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Hormone (estradiol) Estradiol (estrogen) receptor Plasma membrane Hormone-receptor complex NUCLEUS DNA CYTOPLASM Vitellogenin mRNA for vitellogenin

40. Multiple Effects of Hormones The same hormone may have different effects on target cells that have –Different receptors for the hormone –Different signal transduction pathways © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

41. Different receptors Same receptors but different intracellular proteins (not shown) Different cellular responses Epinephrine  receptor  receptor  receptor Glycogen deposits Vessel dilates. Vessel constricts. Glycogen breaks down and glucose is released from cell. (a) Liver cell (b) Skeletal muscle blood vessel Intestinal blood vessel (c) Figure 45.9

42. Signaling by Local Regulators Local regulators are secreted molecules that link neighbouring cells or directly regulate the secreting cell Types of local regulators –Cytokines 細胞激素 and growth factors 生長因子 –Nitric oxide (NO) –Prostaglandins 前列腺素 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

43. Growth factors 生長因子 : proteins and polypeptides that stimulate cell proliferation Example: nerve growth factor (NGF) affects certain embryonic cells, developing white blood cells, and other kinds of cells Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

44. Nitric oxide (NO) –Though a gas, NO is an important local regulator. –When secreted by neurons, it acts as a neurotransmitter. 神經傳導物質 –When secreted by white blood cells, it kills bacteria and cancer cells. 殺菌作用 –And when secreted by endothelial cells, it dilates the walls of blood vessels. 血管舒張 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Viagra 威而剛

45. Prostaglandins (PGs) 前列腺素 : –modified fatty acids ( 胞膜脂質衍生 ) –PGs secreted by the placenta stimulate uterine contractions during childbirth. 子宮收縮 –Other PGs play a role in inflammation 發炎反應 In the immune system, prostaglandins promote fever and Inflammation and intensify the sensation of pain –Prostaglandins help regulate aggregation of platelets, an early step in formation of blood clots –Role in blood flow to the lungs Prostaglandin E 、 prostaglandin F Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

46. The endocrine and nervous systems generally act coordinately to control reproduction and development For example, in larvae of butterflies and moths, the signals that direct molting originate in the brain © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Coordination of Neuroendocrine and Endocrine Signaling

47. In insects, molting and development are controlled by a combination of hormones –A brain hormone (PTTH 前胸腺促泌素 ) stimulates release of ecdysteroid 脫皮固醇 from the prothoracic glands 前胸腺 –Juvenile hormone 青春激素 promotes retention of larval characteristics –Ecdysone 脫皮激素 promotes molting (in the presence of juvenile hormone) and development (in the absence of juvenile hormone) of adult characteristics © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

48. Brain Neurosecretory cells Corpora cardiaca Corpora allata PTTH Prothoracic gland Ecdysteroid Juvenile hormone (JH) EARLY LARVA Figure 45.10-1

49. Brain Neurosecretory cells Corpora cardiaca Corpora allata PTTH Prothoracic gland Ecdysteroid Juvenile hormone (JH) EARLY LARVA LATER LARVA Figure 45.10-2

50. Brain Neurosecretory cells 神經內泌細胞 Corpora cardiaca 心臟內泌體 Corpora allata 咽喉側線 PTTH Prothoracic gland 前胸腺 Ecdysteroid 脫皮激素 Juvenile hormone (JH) Low JH EARLY LARVA LATER LARVA PUPA ADULT Figure 45.10-3

51. Concept 45.2: Feedback regulation and antagonistic hormone pairs are common in endocrine systems Hormones are assembled into regulatory pathways © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

52. Simple Hormone Pathways Hormones are released from an endocrine cell, travel through the bloodstream, and interact with specific receptors within a target cell to cause a physiological response © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

53. For example, the release of acidic contents of the stomach into the duodenum stimulates endocrine cells there to secrete secretin 胃泌素 This causes target cells in the pancreas, a gland behind the stomach, to raise the pH in the duodenum © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

54. Pathway Example  Stimulus Low pH in duodenum Endocrine cell S cells of duodenum secrete the hormone secretin ( ). Hormone Blood vessel Target cells Pancreas Response Bicarbonate release Negative feedback Figure 45.11

55. In a simple neuroendocrine pathway, the stimulus is received by a sensory neuron, which stimulates a neurosecretory cell The neurosecretory cell secretes a neurohormone, which enters the bloodstream and travels to target cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

56. Pathway  Example Stimulus Suckling Sensory neuron Positive feedback Hypothalamus/ posterior pituitary Neurosecretory cell Neurohormone Blood vessel Target cells Response Posterior pituitary secretes the neurohormone oxytocin ( ). 催產素 Smooth muscle in breasts Milk release Figure 45.12

57. A negative feedback loop inhibits a response by reducing the initial stimulus, thus preventing excessive pathway activity Positive feedback reinforces a stimulus to produce an even greater response For example, in mammals oxytocin causes the release of milk, causing greater suckling by offspring, which stimulates the release of more oxytocin © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Feedback Regulation

58. Insulin and Glucagon: Control of Blood Glucose Insulin 胰島素 (decreases blood glucose) and glucagon 昇醣激素 (increases blood glucose) are antagonistic hormones that help maintain glucose homeostasis The pancreas has clusters of endocrine cells called pancreatic islets with alpha cells that produce glucagon and beta cells that produce insulin © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

59. Body cells take up more glucose. Insulin Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood. Liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen. Blood glucose level declines. Blood glucose level rises. Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (70–110 mg/m100mL) STIMULUS: Blood glucose level rises (for instance, after eating a carbohydrate-rich meal). Liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose into the blood. Alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon into the blood. Glucagon STIMULUS: Blood glucose level falls (for instance, after skipping a meal). Figure 45.13

60. Figure 45.13a-1 Insulin Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood. Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (70–110 mg/100 mL) STIMULUS: Blood glucose level rises (for instance, after eating a carbohydrate-rich meal).

61. Figure 45.13a-2 Body cells take up more glucose. Insulin Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood. Liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen. Blood glucose level declines. Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (70–110 mg/100 mL) STIMULUS: Blood glucose level rises (for instance, after eating a carbohydrate-rich meal).

62. Figure 45.13b-1 Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (70–110 mg/100 mL) Glucagon STIMULUS: Blood glucose level falls (for instance, after skipping a meal). Alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon into the blood.

63. Figure 45.13b-2 Blood glucose level rises. Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (70–110 mg/100 mL) Liver breaks down glycogen and releases glucose into the blood. Alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon into the blood. Glucagon STIMULUS: Blood glucose level falls (for instance, after skipping a meal).

64. Target Tissues for Insulin and Glucagon Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by –Promoting the cellular uptake of glucose –Slowing glycogen breakdown in the liver –Promoting fat storage, not breakdown © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

65. Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by –Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver –Stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

66. Diabetes Mellitus Diabetes mellitus 糖尿病 is perhaps the best- known endocrine disorder It is caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues It is marked by elevated blood glucose levels © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

67. Type I diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulin- dependent) involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due to change in insulin receptors Glucose tolerance factor

69. Concept 45.3: The hypothalamus and pituitary are central to endocrine regulation Endocrine pathways are subject to regulation by the nervous system, including the brain © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

70. Coordination of Endocrine and Nervous Systems in Vertebrates The hypothalamus 下視丘 receives information from the nervous system and initiates responses through the endocrine system Attached to the hypothalamus is the pituitary gland 腦下垂體 composed of the posterior pituitary and anterior pituitary © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

71. The posterior pituitary 腦下垂體後葉 stores and secretes hormones that are made in the hypothalamus Neurohypophysis 神經性腦下腺 The anterior pituitary 腦下垂體前葉 makes and releases hormones under regulation of the hypothalamus Adenohypophysis 腺性腦下腺 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

72. Pineal gland Cerebellum Spinal cord Cerebrum Thalamus Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Posterior pituitary Anterior pituitary Hypothalamus Figure 45.14

73. Posterior Pituitary Hormones The two hormones released from the posterior pituitary act directly on nonendocrine tissues –Oxytocin 催產素 induces uterine contractions and regulates milk secretion by the mammary glands Suckling sends a message to the hypothalamus via the nervous system to release oxytocin, which further stimulates the milk glands This is an example of positive feedback, where the stimulus leads to an even greater response –Antidiuretic hormone 抗利尿激素 (ADH) enhances water reabsorption in the kidneys regulates physiology and behavior © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

74. Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus Neurohormone Posterior pituitary Hypothalamus Axons Anterior pituitary HORMONE TARGET ADHOxytocin Kidney tubules Mammary glands, uterine muscles Figure 45.15

75. Anterior Pituitary Hormones Hormone production in the anterior pituitary is controlled by releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus For example, prolactin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete prolactin (PRL) 泌乳激素, which has a role in milk production For example, the production of thyrotropin releasing hormone 甲狀腺素釋放激素 (TRH) in the hypothalamus stimulates secretion of the thyroid stimulating hormone 甲狀腺刺激素 (TSH) from the anterior pituitary © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

76. Tropic effects only: FSH LH TSH ACTH Nontropic effects only: Prolactin MSH Nontropic and tropic effects: GH Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones Posterior pituitary Neurosecretory cells of the hypothalamus Portal vessels Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary Pituitary hormones HORMONE FSH and LH TSH ACTH Prolactin MSH GH TARGET Thyroid Melanocytes Testes or ovaries Adrenal cortex Mammary glands Liver, bones, other tissues Figure 45.16

77. Table 45.1

78. Table 45.1a

79. Table 45.1b

80. Thyroid Regulation: A Hormone Cascade Pathway A hormone can stimulate the release of a series of other hormones, the last of which activates a nonendocrine target cell; this is called a hormone cascade pathway The release of thyroid hormone results from a hormone cascade pathway involving the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and thyroid gland Hormone cascade pathways typically involve negative feedback © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

81. Figure 45.17 Pathway Example Stimulus Cold Sensory neuron   Hypothalamus Neurosecretory cell Releasing hormone Blood vessel Anterior pituitary Tropic hormone Endocrine cell Hormone Target cells Response Negative feedback Hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH ). Anterior pituitary secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, also known as thyrotropin ). Thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormone (T 3 and T 4 ). Body tissues Increased cellular metabolism

82. Pathway Example Stimulus Cold Sensory neuron Hypothalamus Neurosecretory cell Releasing hormone Blood vessel Anterior pituitary Tropic hormone Hypothalamus secretes thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH ). Anterior pituitary secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, also known as thyrotropin ). Figure 45.17a

83. Anterior pituitary Tropic hormone Endocrine cell Hormone Target cells Response Anterior pituitary secretes thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH, also known as thyrotropin ). Thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormone (T 3 and T 4 ). Body tissues Increased cellular metabolism Pathway Example Negative feedback  To hypothalamus Figure 45.17b

84. Disorders of Thyroid Function and Regulation Hypothyroidism, too little thyroid function, can produce symptoms such as –Weight gain, lethargy, cold intolerance Hyperthyroidism, excessive production of thyroid hormone, can lead to –High temperature, sweating, weight loss, irritability and high blood pressure Malnutrition can alter thyroid function © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

85. Graves disease, a form of hyperthyroidism caused by autoimmunity, is typified by protruding eyes Thyroid hormone refers to a pair of hormones –Triiodothyronin (T 3 ), with three iodine atoms –Thyroxine (T 4 ) with four iodine atoms Insufficient dietary iodine leads to an enlarged thyroid gland, called a goiter © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

86. Figure 45.18 Low level of iodine uptake High level of iodine uptake

87. Evolution of Hormone Function Over the course of evolution the function of a given hormone may diverge between species For example, thyroid hormone plays a role in metabolism across many lineages, but in frogs has taken on a unique function: stimulating the resorption of the tadpole tail during metamorphosis Prolactin also has a broad range of activities in vertebrates © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

88. Tadpole Adult frog Figure 45.19

89. Figure 45.19a Tadpole

90. Figure 45.19b Adult frog

91. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) regulates skin color in amphibians, fish, and reptiles by controlling pigment distribution in melanocytes In mammals, MSH plays additional roles in hunger and metabolism in addition to coloration © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

92. Tropic and Nontropic Hormones A tropic hormone regulates the function of endocrine cells or glands Three primarily tropic hormones are –Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) –Luteinizing hormone (LH) –Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

93. Growth hormone (GH) is secreted by the anterior pituitary gland and has tropic and nontropic actions It promotes growth directly and has diverse metabolic effects It stimulates production of growth factors An excess of GH can cause gigantism, while a lack of GH can cause dwarfism © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

94. Endocrine signaling regulates homeostasis, development, and behavior Concept 45.4: Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli in regulating homeostasis, development, and behavior © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

95. Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D: Control of Blood Calcium Two antagonistic hormones regulate the homeostasis of calcium (Ca 2+ ) in the blood of mammals –Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released by the parathyroid glands –Calcitonin is released by the thyroid gland © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

96. Parathyroid gland (behind thyroid) PTH Homeostasis: Blood Ca 2  level (about 10 mg/100 mL) STIMULUS: Falling blood Ca 2  level Figure 45.20-1

97. Active vitamin D Increases Ca 2  uptake in intestines Stimulates Ca 2  uptake in kidneys Stimulates Ca 2  release from bones Parathyroid gland (behind thyroid) PTH Blood Ca 2  level rises. Homeostasis: Blood Ca 2  level (about 10 mg/100 mL) STIMULUS: Falling blood Ca 2  level Figure 45.20-2

98. PTH increases the level of blood Ca 2+ –It releases Ca 2+ from bone and stimulates reabsorption of Ca 2+ in the kidneys –It also has an indirect effect, stimulating the kidneys to activate vitamin D, which promotes intestinal uptake of Ca 2+ from food Calcitonin decreases the level of blood Ca 2+ –It stimulates Ca 2+ deposition in bones and secretion by kidneys © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

99. Adrenal Hormones: Response to Stress The adrenal glands are adjacent to the kidneys Each adrenal gland actually consists of two glands: the adrenal medulla (inner portion) and adrenal cortex (outer portion) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

100. Catecholamines from the Adrenal Medulla The adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) These hormones are members of a class of compounds called catecholamines They are secreted in response to stress-activated impulses from the nervous system They mediate various fight-or-flight responses © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

101. Epinephrine and norepinephrine –Trigger the release of glucose and fatty acids into the blood –Increase oxygen delivery to body cells –Direct blood toward heart, brain, and skeletal muscles, and away from skin, digestive system, and kidneys The release of epinephrine and norepinephrine occurs in response to involuntary nerve signals © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

102. Spinal cord (cross section) (a) (b)Long-term stress response and the adrenal cortex Short-term stress response and the adrenal medulla Stress Nerve signals Nerve cell Releasing hormone Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary Blood vessel Nerve cell ACTH Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. Adrenal gland Kidney Adrenal cortex secretes mineralo- corticoids and glucocorticoids. Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: Effects of mineralocorticoids: Effects of glucocorticoids: Glycogen broken down to glucose; increased blood glucose Increased blood pressure Increased breathing rate Increased metabolic rate Change in blood flow patterns, leading to increased alertness and decreased digestive, excretory, and reproductive system activity Retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys Increased blood volume and blood pressure Proteins and fats broken down and converted to glucose, leading to increased blood glucose Partial suppression of immune system Figure 45.21

103. Spinal cord (cross section) (a) Short-term stress response and the adrenal medulla Stress Nerve signals Nerve cell Adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine. Adrenal gland Kidney Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: Glycogen broken down to glucose; increased blood glucose Increased blood pressure Increased breathing rate Increased metabolic rate Change in blood flow patterns, leading to increased alertness and decreased digestive, excretory, and reproductive system activity Hypo- thalamus Figure 45.21a

104. Steroid Hormones from the Adrenal Cortex The adrenal cortex releases a family of steroids called corticosteroids in response to stress These hormones are triggered by a hormone cascade pathway via the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary (ACTH) Humans produce two types of corticosteroids: glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

105. (b) Long-term stress response and the adrenal cortex Stress Releasing hormone Hypothalamus Anterior pituitary Blood vessel ACTH Adrenal cortex secretes mineralo- corticoids and glucocorticoids. Effects of mineralocorticoids: Effects of glucocorticoids: Retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys Increased blood volume and blood pressure Proteins and fats broken down and converted to glucose, leading to increased blood glucose Partial suppression of immune system Adrenal gland Kidney Figure 45.21b

106. Glucocorticoids, such as cortisol, influence glucose metabolism and the immune system Mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone, affect salt and water balance The adrenal cortex also produces small amounts of steroid hormones that function as sex hormones © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

107. Gonadal Sex Hormones The gonads, testes and ovaries, produce most of the sex hormones: androgens, estrogens, and progestins All three sex hormones are found in both males and females, but in significantly different proportions © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

108. The testes primarily synthesize androgens, mainly testosterone, which stimulate development and maintenance of the male reproductive system Testosterone causes an increase in muscle and bone mass and is often taken as a supplement to cause muscle growth, which carries health risks © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

109. Chromosome Set Appearance of Genitalia No surgery Embryonic gonad removed XY (male) XX (female) Male Female RESULTS Figure 45.22

110. Estrogens, most importantly estradiol, are responsible for maintenance of the female reproductive system and the development of female secondary sex characteristics In mammals, progestins, which include progesterone, are primarily involved in preparing and maintaining the uterus Synthesis of the sex hormones is controlled by FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

111. Between 1938 and 1971 some pregnant women at risk for complications were prescribed a synthetic estrogen called diethylstilbestrol (DES) Daughters of women treated with DES are at higher risk for reproductive abnormalities, including miscarriage, structural changes, and cervical and vaginal cancers © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Endocrine Disruptors

112. DES is an endocrine disruptor, a molecule that interrupts the normal function of a hormone pathway, in this case, that of estrogen © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

113. Melatonin and Biorhythms The pineal gland, located in the brain, secretes melatonin Light/dark cycles control release of melatonin Primary functions of melatonin appear to relate to biological rhythms associated with reproduction © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

114. Pathway Negative feedback  Stimulus Endocrine cell Hormone Blood vessel Target cells Response Glycogen breakdown, glucose release into blood Liver Pancreas secretes glucagon ( ). Low blood glucose Example Figure 45.UN02

115. Figure 45.UN03 Drug administered None Dexamethasone Normal Patient X Cortisol level in blood

116. Figure 45.UN04