1. Chapter 4 Aqueous Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry

2. Solutions
Solutions are defined as homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure substances.
The solvent is present in greatest abundance.
All other substances are solutes.

3. Dissociation
When an ionic substance dissolves in water, the solvent pulls the individual ions from the crystal and solvates them.
This process is called dissociation.

4. Dissociation
An electrolyte is a substances that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water.

5. Electrolytes
An electrolyte is a substances that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water.
A nonelectrolyte may dissolve in water, but it does not dissociate into ions when it does so.

6. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Soluble ionic compounds tend to be electrolytes.

7. Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes
Molecular compounds tend to be nonelectrolytes, except for acids and bases.

8. Electrolytes
A strong electrolyte dissociates completely when dissolved in water.
A weak electrolyte only dissociates partially when dissolved in water.

9. Strong Electrolytes Are…
Strong acids
Strong bases

10. Strong Electrolytes Are…
Strong acids
Strong bases
Soluble ionic salts

11. Precipitation Reactions
When one mixes ions that form compounds that are insoluble (as could be predicted by the solubility guidelines), a precipitate is formed.

12. Three Types of Equations
Molecular Equation- written as whole formulas, not the ions.
K2CrO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) ®
Complete Ionic equation show dissolved electrolytes as the ions.
2K+ + CrO4-2 + Ba+2+ 2 NO3- ®BaCrO4(s) + 2K+ + 2 NO3-
Spectator ions are those that don’t react.

13. Three Type of Equations
Net Ionic equations show only those ions that react, not the spectator ions
Ba+2 + CrO4-2 ® BaCrO4(s)
Write the three types of equations for the reactions when the following solutions are mixed.

14. Precipitation reactions
Molecular…..
NaOH(aq) + FeCl3(aq) ®
Ionic ….
Na+(aq)+OH-(aq) + Fe+3 + Cl-(aq) ®
So all that really happens is …..

15. Precipitation reaction
Try this one….
Li2CO3(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) ®

16. Zn(NO3)2(aq) + BaCr2O7(aq) ®
CdCl2(aq) + Na2S(aq) ®

17. Precipitations Reactions
Only happen if one of the products is insoluble
Otherwise all the ions stay in solution- nothing has happened.
Need to memorize the rules for solubility

18. iron (III) sulfate and potassium sulfide
Lead (II) nitrate and sulfuric acid.

19. Stoichiometry of Precipitation
What mass of solid is formed when mL of 0.100M Aluminum chloride is mixed with mL of 0.100M sodium hydroxide?

20. 25 mL of 0. 67 M of H2SO4 is added to 35 mL of 0. 40M SrCl2
25 mL of 0.67 M of H2SO4 is added to 35 mL of 0.40M SrCl2 . What mass of SrSO4 is formed?

21. What volume of M HCl is needed to precipitate the silver from 50.ml of M silver nitrate solution ?

22. Acids
Arrhenius defined acids as substances that increase the concentration of H+ when dissolved in water.
Brønsted and Lowry defined them as proton donors.

23. Acids There are only six strong acids: Hydrochloric (HCl)
Hydrobromic (HBr)
Hydroiodic (HI)
Nitric (HNO3)
Sulfuric (H2SO4)
Perchloric (HClO4)

24. Bases
Arrhenius defined bases as substances that increase the concentration of OH− when dissolved in water.
Brønsted and Lowry defined them as proton acceptors.

25. Bases The strong bases are the soluble metal salts of hydroxide ion:
Alkali metals
Calcium
Strontium
Barium

26. Acid-Base Reactions
In an acid-base reaction, the acid donates a proton (H+) to the base.

27. Neutralization Reactions
Generally, when solutions of an acid and a base are combined, the products are a salt and water.
CH3COOH (aq) + NaOH (aq) CH3COONa (aq) + H2O (l)

28. Neutralization Reactions
When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net ionic equation is…
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

29. Neutralization Reactions
When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net ionic equation is…
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq) 
Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)

30. Neutralization Reactions
When a strong acid reacts with a strong base, the net ionic equation is…
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq)  NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq) 
Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + H2O (l)
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  H2O (l)

31. A 50. 00 mL sample of aqueous Ca(OH)2 requires 34. 66 mL of 0
A mL sample of aqueous Ca(OH)2 requires mL of M Nitric acid for neutralization. What is molarity of Ca(OH)2 ?

32. 75 mL of 0. 25M HCl is mixed with 225 mL of 0. 055 M Ba(OH)2
75 mL of 0.25M HCl is mixed with 225 mL of M Ba(OH)2 . What is the concentration of the excess H+ or OH- ?

33. Gas-Forming Reactions
Some metathesis reactions do not give the product expected.
In this reaction, the expected product (H2CO3) decomposes to give a gaseous product (CO2).
CaCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

34. Gas-Forming Reactions
When a carbonate or bicarbonate reacts with an acid, the products are a salt, carbon dioxide, and water.
CaCO3 (s) + HCl (aq) CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
NaHCO3 (aq) + HBr (aq) NaBr (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

35. Gas-Forming Reactions
Similarly, when a sulfite reacts with an acid, the products are a salt, sulfur dioxide, and water.
SrSO3 (s) + 2 HI (aq) SrI2 (aq) + SO2 (g) + H2O (l)

36. Gas-Forming Reactions
This reaction gives the predicted product, but you had better carry it out in the hood, or you will be very unpopular!
But just as in the previous examples, a gas is formed as a product of this reaction.
Na2S (aq) + H2SO4 (aq)  Na2SO4 (aq) + H2S (g)

37. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
An oxidation occurs when an atom or ion loses electrons.
A reduction occurs when an atom or ion gains electrons.
One cannot occur without the other.

38. Oxidation Numbers
To determine if an oxidation-reduction reaction has occurred, we assign an oxidation number to each element in a neutral compound or charged entity.

39. Oxidation Numbers
Elements in their elemental form have an oxidation number of 0.
The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is the same as its charge.

40. Oxidation Numbers
Nonmetals tend to have negative oxidation numbers, although some are positive in certain compounds or ions.
Oxygen has an oxidation number of −2, except in the peroxide ion in which it has an oxidation number of −1.
Hydrogen is −1 when bonded to a metal, +1 when bonded to a nonmetal.

41. Oxidation Numbers
Nonmetals tend to have negative oxidation numbers, although some are positive in certain compounds or ions.
Fluorine always has an oxidation number of −1.
The other halogens have an oxidation number of −1 when they are negative; they can have positive oxidation numbers, however, most notably in oxyanions.

42. Oxidation Numbers
The sum of the oxidation numbers in a neutral compound is 0.
The sum of the oxidation numbers in a polyatomic ion is the charge on the ion.

43. Oxidation States
Assign the oxidation states to each element in the following.
CO2 NO3
H2SO4 Fe2O3
Fe3O4

44. Oxidation-Reduction
Transfer electrons, so the oxidation states change.
Na + 2Cl2 ® 2NaCl
CH4 + 2O2 ® CO2 + 2H2O
Oxidation is the loss of electrons.
Reduction is the gain of electrons.
OIL RIG
LEO GER

45. Oxidation-Reduction
Oxidation means an increase in oxidation state - lose electrons.
Reduction means a decrease in oxidation state - gain electrons.

46. Identify the Substance oxidized Substance reduced
Fe (s) + O2(g) ® Fe2O3(s)

47. Fe2O3(s)+ 3 CO(g) ® 2 Fe(l) + 3 CO2(g)
SO3-2 + H+ + MnO4- ® SO4-2 + H2O + Mn+2

48. Half-Reactions
All redox reactions can be thought of as happening in two halves.
One produces electrons - Oxidation half.
The other requires electrons - Reduction half.

49. Write the half reactions for the following. Na + Cl2 ® Na+ + Cl-
SO3-2 + H+ + MnO4- ® SO4-2 + H2O + Mn+2

50. Balancing Redox Equations
In aqueous solutions the key is the number of electrons produced must be the same as those required.
For reactions in acidic solution an 8 step procedure.
Write separate half reactions
For each half reaction balance all reactants except H and O
Balance O using H2O

51. Acidic Solution Balance H using H+ Balance charge using e-
Multiply equations to make electrons equal
Add equations and cancel identical species
Check that charges and elements are balanced.

52. SO3-2 + H+ + MnO4- ® SO4-2 + H2O + Mn+2

53. Practice
The following reactions occur in aqueous solution. Balance them
Cr(OH)3 + OCl- + OH- ® CrO4-2 + Cl- + H2O

54. MnO4- + Fe+2 ® Mn+2 + Fe+3

55. Basic solution Follow steps for acidic solution
Upon completion, add as many OH- ions as there are H+ ions to both sides of the equation
The side of the equation with both H+ and OH- combine to form water
If necessary reduce the waters on both sides of the equation

56. Displacement Reactions
In displacement reactions, ions oxidize an element.
The ions, then, are reduced.

57. Displacement Reactions
In this reaction,
silver ions oxidize
copper metal.
Cu (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq)  Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s)

58. Displacement Reactions
The reverse reaction,
however, does not
occur.
Cu2+ (aq) + 2 Ag (s)  Cu (s) + 2 Ag+ (aq) x

59. Mixing a Solution
To create a solution of a known molarity, one weighs out a known mass (and, therefore, number of moles) of the solute.
The solute is added to a volumetric flask, and solvent is added to the line on the neck of the flask.

60. Dilution One can also dilute a more concentrated solution by
Using a pipet to deliver a volume of the solution to a new volumetric flask, and
Adding solvent to the line on the neck of the new flask.

61. Dilution
The molarity of the new solution can be determined from the equation
Mc  Vc = Md  Vd,
where Mc and Md are the molarity of the concentrated and dilute solutions, respectively, and Vc and Vd are the volumes of the two solutions.

62. Using Molarities in Stoichiometric Calculations