Social Psychology How we think about, influence and relate to one another Attitude Attraction Group Behavior Aggression Social Psychology - Studying the.

Social Psychology How we think about, influence and relate to one another Attitude Attraction Group Behavior Aggression Social Psychology - Studying the way people think about, influence and relate to others.

Thinking about ourselves and others
Attribution Theory - how we explain others’ behavior - by attributing it either to their Situational Attribution External Dispositional Attribution Internal Example: Student’s hostility Situational – Dispositional – Attribution theory was designed to account for how people explain other’s behavior Heidler – people attribute their behavior either to the situation (reaction to their role/environment)or to their dispositions (personality traits) Situational – Ex. Car accident is attributed to roads were wet Failing a test is attributed to not performing well under stress Dispositional Car accident – attributed to carelessness Stable attribution – behavior is due to unchanging factors D on psych test – always have bad luck Unstable attribution – behavior is due to temporary factors D on test – didn’t have much time to study this week Failing a test Car accident Car breaks down Break a leg Fall asleep in class Get fired from job Don’t get accepted to college How do you view behavior of a good friend vs. a new acquaintance Gets angry, walks by you in the hallway without saying hello, after you you have just said hello Late for work

Fundamental Attribution Error
How do you view your teacher’s behavior? Fundamental attribution error - tendency to overestimate the role of factors and factors More common in Individualistic cultures Avoid by observing people in Can be attributed to: Self-serving bias – How do you view your teacher’s behavior? You probably attribute it to their personality rather than their profession. But do you really know? Fundamental Attribution Error Tendency to overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate the influence of situations on others behavior We explain strangers' behavior in terms of personality traits and our own behavior in terms of situational constraints. Tendency to attribute behavior to people’s dispositions runs especially strong in individualistic western countries – more sensitive to the power of the situation in Eastern cultures A limited visual perspective – seeing a person in a limited situation is likely to cause fundamental attribution error Can minimize fundamental attribution error by observing someone in many situations False Consensus effect – tendency to overestimate how much others agree with you When you start a romance, you assume that they agree with your world views Effects of attribution View our past with dispositional factors, current with situational View our admirable actions less with situational than our shameful actions Conservatives view poverty and unemployment as dispositional, liberals view as situational View strangers behavior as dispositional, those we know well as situational Managers view workers poor performance to dispositional; works view as situational Optimists – good events to dispositions, bad to situations Pessimists – good events to situations, bad to dispositions Self-serving bias- readiness to perceive oneself favorably If you win it is because you are awesome…if you lose, it must have been the coach …We (Solon) won they game …They (Solon) lost the game

Attitudes Attitudes - Feelings, based on beliefs, that guide our behavior Advertising is ALL based on attitude formation. Attitudes – feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in particular ways to people, events and objects (belief based feelings that guide behavior Central route persuasion - opinion change from thoughtful focus on scientific evidence and the content of arguments (focuses on the heart or center of the matter) Analytical people more prone to central route persuasion Magazine ads for computers – use detailed info about products not hollywood endorsements More durable and likely to influence behavior Peripheral Route persuasion – (more indirect – not central to supporting an issue) opinion change through incidental cues ie. Speakers attractiveness, endorsement of famous person, emotion evoking music or images occurs more rapidly External influences also affect attitude ie. Social pressures Behavior is more consistent with attitudes when external influences are minimal, when we easily recall our attitudes

4 Ways Attitudes Affect Actions
Central Route of Persuasion - opinion change from thoughtful focus on Example: Peripheral Route Persuasion –opinion change through (Speakers attractiveness, endorsement of famous person, emotion evoking music or images) Social Pressure Vivid, Easily recalled information Central route most likely when people are analytical—ie computer ads use central route persuasion vs. Cigaret and Alcohol ads use peripheral route persuasion

5 Ways Actions Affect Attitudes
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon – persuasion technique to get someone to agree first to a small request to get them to comply later with a larger request Example: Door-in-the-face phenomenon – persuasion technique to get someone to comply by first making an extremely large request, then requesting something smaller Norms of reciprocity – social expectation that people will respond to each other in kind Foot in door show how actions affect attitudes If I start demeaning Dan in class, I may begin to think that Dan is stupid Door to door salesman asks you to accept a free sample of his products then comes back a week later and asks you to make a purchase Agree to put a small sign in yard –Parents who host lose the most, then ask to put a large and unattractive sign Whites began expressing diminished racial prejudice AFTER the Civil rights Act was passed = effect of actions on attitudes Foot in door phenomenon – tendency of people who first agree to a small request to comply later with a larger request Korean War – US soldiers captured by Chinese communist collaborated in small activities, later complied with larger requests (21 prisoners chose to stay with communists) – soldiers often adjusted their beliefs toward consistency with their public acts Trival acts make the next act easier Works for good deeds too – like blood donations, product sales Door in face phenomenon – make an extremely large request first, that respondent will obviously turn down, person will more likely respond to a second more reasonable request Have students brainstorm about ways they have used foot-in-door to get advantages for themselves Ie. Ask for slightly later curfew first instead of asking for extremely later curfew Ask parents to buy something inexpensive before asking for something expensive Telling parents something slightly bad before telling something they’d view as being really bad Its easier to change attitudes than actions – can always change the attitude to fit the action, difficult to change action to fit the attitude Racial attitudes followed behavior – After Civil Rights Act passed, whites expressed diminishing racial prejudice Norms of reciprocity – social expectation that people will respond to each other in kind returning benefits for benefits or responding with hostility to harms

Role-Playing Affects Attitudes
Role– set of behaviors for a specific social position Zimbardo - Stanford Prison Study Abu Ghraib Studies on Role playing show the affects of actions on attitudes When you adopt a new role - New job, school, title etc, you begin to adopt the attitudes of someone in that position Randomly assigned people to prisoners or guards Measuring the effect of actions on attitudes Zimbardo -great example of how actions affect attitudes simulated prison facility randomly assigned college students as prisoners (locked in cells and forced to wear humiliating outfits) or guards (uniforms, billyclubs, whistles, instructed to inforce rules) Attributed behavior as situational attribution So endangered by role playing study had to be discontinued – guards developed disparaging attitudes, devised cruel and degrading routines; prisoners broke down, rebelled or became passively resigned Abu Ghraib – guards stripped prisoners naked, placed hoods over them, prodded them with electricity, taunted them with dogs, subjected to sleep deprivation, humiliation and extreme stress Situational attribution – situation contributed to behavior - soldiers were exhausted – 12 hour shifts, 7 days/week, dealing with enemy fears of lethal attacks and violent deaths of fellow soldiers, encouraged to soften up detainees, had minimal supervision and training – put anyone in this situation and get this kind of evil behavior Not everyone succumbs to the situation

Cognitive Dissonance 5. Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Festinger) - Discomfort we feel when your thoughts and behaviors or two thoughts are inconsistent People want to have consistent attitudes and behaviors….when they are not they experience dissonance (unpleasant tension). Usually they will change their attitude sometimes their behavior. Example: Cognitive Dissonance – discomfort we feel when thoughts and behaviors are inconsistent Explains why actions lead us to modify our attitudes Ex. Believe in right to have an abortion, then asked to debate against abortion – attitude change is explained by cognitive dissonance Support Bush’s decisions for going to war in iraq to find wmd. After non found, change attitude to reason to going to war was for democracy, get rid of oppressive govt. Ex. – Explains foot-in-door phenomenon The teacher was really bad so in that class it is OK. You have a belief that cheating on tests is bad. But you cheat on a test!!!

Fetzinger’s study

Conformity and Obedience
Chameleon effect- unconsciously mimicking others’ expressions, postures and voice tones Example: Mood linkage – sharing up and down moods of others Chameleon effect – unconsciously mimicking those around us – expressions, postures, voice tones – Involves automatic mimicry Just hearing a someone’s voice crack when they are about to cry, makes my eyes water If people gaze upwards, passerby’s will do the same -helps us emphasize with others Mood linkage – sharing up and down moods. why we feel happier around happy people, sad around depressed people Effects of suggestibility can be more serious 1. Clusters of teenage suicides are result of suggestability

Conformity Conformity - Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. Example: Conformity – adjusting one’s behavior or thinking with a group standard

Asch’s Study of Conformity
Asch’s conformity study - Solomon Asch asked people to identify which of three comparison lines was identical to a standard line. Research participants believed that the Asch conformity test involved a study of visual perception Individuals conformed to a group's judgment of the lengths of lines even when the group’s judgment was clearly incorrect

Asch’s Conformity Experiment
Independent Variable Dependent Variable Operational Definition Confounding Variables

Asch’s Results About 1/3 of the participants conformed.
70% conformed at least once. Conditions that Strengthen Conformity: The group is You are within the group or made to feel incompetent The group is at You You had made Others in the group Your culture

Reasons for Conforming
Normative social influence - desire to gain approval/avoid rejection Example: Informational social influence - Accepting other peoples opinions about reality Example Why we conform Normative social influence - desire to gain approval/avoid rejection –sensitivity to social norms Informational social influence – accepting other peoples opinions about reality (groups provide valuable info) Ie. Don’t wear an outfit to school because your friends would dissaprove Attend meeting to avoid disapproval from principal Publically say you’ll vote for someone because your friend does, but secretly vote for someone else ie. Don’t go to Ohio State because weather forecaster says we are getting a huge snow storm Prison line up when task was difficult and important – more likely to conform Individualist countries promote nonconformity Collectivist countries promote conformity

Milgram’s Study Of Obedience
Independent Variable Dependent Variable Operational Definition Ethics Participants were ordered to shock the learner for giving incorrect answers Participants were deceived about the amount of electricity they received Majority of “teachers” were ordered to shock the learners complied fully and delivered the highest levels of shock Teachers were more obedient than most people predicted Study was controversial bcs teachers were deceived and subjected to stress Teachers were most likely to deliver the highest levels of shock when learners were placed in a different room than the teacher Lower level of compliance when experimenter wasn’t associated with a prestigious university Least likely to deliver the highest levels of shock when they observed other participants refuse to obey orders Most participants didn’t regret taking part in the study Most important lesson - even ordinary people, who are not usually hostile, can become agents of destruction. – Partially explains holocaust – anti-Semitism also played a part Example of foot-in-door phenomenon – gradually escalating levels of destructive obedience Other tests: Prestige of the setting, Proximity of Authority, Presence of rebellious peers

Results of the Milgram Study

What did we learn from Milgram?
Ordinary people can do shocking things – evils can grow out of compliance to others’ evils Factors that increase obedience: Experimenter Learner Experiment associated with prestigious location Lower Obedience – Learner observed other participants Ethics Great evils sometimes grow out of compliance with other’s evils

David's history teacher asked him why so many German people complied with Hitler's orders to systematically slaughter millions of innocent Jews. David suggested that the atrocities were committed because the Germans had become unusually cruel, sadistic people with abnormal and twisted personalities. Use your knowledge of the fundamental attribution error and Milgram's research on obedience to highlight the weaknesses of David's explanation.

Social Facilitation Theory
Social Facilitation – stronger performance in the presence of others If you are really good at something (well learned tasks)….or it is an easy task…you will perform BETTER in front of a group. - If it is a difficult task or you are not very good at it…you will perform WORSE in front of a group Example: Individual behaviors in the presence of others: Social facilitation, social loafing, deindividiation Social facilitation theory – tendency to perform well learned/simple tasks more effectively in the presence of others Which would you perform better at – counting backwards from 10 to 1, or learning nonsense syllables? Arousal strengthens the most likely response –the correct one on an easy task, the incorrect one on a difficult task Home field advantage home teams win about 6/10 events (unless you’re the Indians). Crowding effects – comedy is funnier in a crowded room than in uncrowded room. If setting up room for a class or gathering, have barely enough seating.

Social Loafing Social Loafing - the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling efforts toward a common goal than if they were individually accountable. Example – What happens to people’s performance when people perform the task as a group? Social loafing – especially common among men (-: in cultures that value individualism Ex. Blindfolded subjects asked to pull a rope during a tug awar exerted only 82 percent of the effort when thought they were pulling as a group. Come up with your own examples of social loafing. Reasons why – less accountability view them as dispensable

Deindividuation Deindividuation – presence of others arouses people and diminishes their responsibility. Feel anonymous and aroused. Example - Social facilitation and deindividuation work together…how? Sometime presence of others can arouse people (social facilitation), sometimes presence of others can diminish feelings of responsibility (social loafing), sometimes presence of others both arouses people and diminishes sense of responsibility (deindividuation) Ex. Hurricane Katrina – law abiding citizens began to loot and vandalize when they became part of a mob Masked kidnappers more likely than unmasked kidnappers to hurt their victims NYU students dressed as KKK demonstrated more aggression Circumstances that increase self-awareness, decrease deindividuation

A crowd at a soccer game starts to boo, yell at the home team, and throw cups and trash at the players after the team loses a very close match. Explain how social facilitation and deindividuation contribute to the crowd's behavior.

Group Polarization Group polarization - If a group is like-minded, discussion strengthens its prevailing opinion. Groups tend to make more extreme decisions than the individual. Example: Effects of Group interaction: group polarization and group think Group polarization – enhancement of a group’s ideas tend to become more extreme as they discuss them Most likely occurs in groups that share similar positions Some students think Mr.. Ashkettle is a slightly better teacher than Mr. Nunney. After discussing it with each other they think that Mr.. Ashkettle is definitely a better teacher. Individuals who believe that Roe v. Wade should be overturned. After meeting to discuss the issue, they are even more convinced that it should be overturned Internet has served as medium for group polarization by providing “chat rooms” for people with common interests i.e. terrorists

Groupthink Groupthink - Group members suppress reservations about the ideas supported by the group. Desire for Worse in groups—(group polarization). Avoided when leader Example: Kennedy’s decision to invade Cuba with 1400 CIA Trained exiles happened through group think - group had good feelings after election that fostered undue confidence in the plan. Dissenting views were suppressed or self-censored especially after Kennedy expressed enthusiasm for the plan Other historical fiascos – Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Challenger explosion, Watergate cover-up, escalation of Vietnam War, Iraq’s WMD—group think was fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification and group polarization. Leader says we’ve been united on important matters before, I hope that continues Overwhelming desire for harmony increases probability of groupthink Groupthink can be avoided when the leader welcomes various opinions Kennedy in Cuban Missile Crisis, Truman and Marshall Plan Welcoming outside opinions and inviting outside experts to criticize groups plans can help prevent group think

If representatives from the Republican and Democratic parties gathered to discuss a minimum wage bill, how might the concepts of group polarization and groupthink influence the discussion and eventual vote?

Cultural Influence Culture – behaviors, attitudes, ideas, values shared by a group Example: Culture within animals Culture in humans Preservation of innovation Division of labor Culture – behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to another Cultural diversity explains our adaptive capacity -culture supports our species survival by enabling social and economic systems that give us an edge -preservation of innovation illustrates the survival capacity of culture- electricity indoor pluming, antibiotics, internet - Invention of dating and courtship illustrates cultural influence - Culture enables the division of labor -chimpanzees sometimes invent culture – potato washing is passed to offspring

Variations Across Cultures
Norm – rules for accepted and expected behavior Example: – the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies North Americans prefer more than Latin Americans Pace of life Expressiveness Norms – rules for excepted and expected behavior Ex. Covering your mouth when you cough, don’t talk with food in your mouth, don’t burp out loud. Can you think of others? Personal space is a cultural norm ex. Don’t sit at a stranger’s table, next to someone in an empty movie theater Personal space – the distance we like to maintain between ourselves and other people - Differs between cultures – North American’s, Scandinavians, British prefer more personal space than Latin Americans, Arabs, and French

Changes over the generations
Variation Over Time Changes over the generations Western culture has changed with remarkable speed – online shopping, texting instead of letter writing, listening to thousands of songs on a device the size of your palm instead of…women more likely to marry for love instead of economic reasons, Negative changes – more divorce delinquency and depression, more hours at work, fewer hours sleeping, less time with friends.

The Power of Individuals
Social control – regulation of peoples behavior through social norms Example Personal control – the power of the individual to do the opposite of what is socially accepted Example – Minority influence – the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities Power of Social influence = Social Control – the power of the situation Personal Control – the power of the individual 3 individual soldiers asserted their personal control at Abu Ghraib prison. David Sutten –reported an incident to his comanders A dog handler refused to participate in using an attack dog with his commanders One soldier took pictures providing evidence of the atrocities Each risked ridicule and court martial for not following orders Committed individuals (minorities) can sway the majority – be self confident and consistent in expressing your viewpoint Committed individuals can sway the majority – Rosa Parks, Mikail Gorbechev and communism, Printing press, telegraph, incandecent light, railroad, steamboat etc. Minority influence – power of one or two people to sway the majority – may not make you popular to hold your position, but it may make you influential, especially if you are self confident and make others think why you react the way you do Power of social influence is enormous, but so is the power of the committed individual

Social Relations – how we relate to one another: prejudice, aggression, attraction, altruism, peacemaking

Stereotype – all Muslim’s are terrorist
Prejudice – I hate all Muslims Discrimination – I won’t go allow Muslim’s to be on my Mock Trial Team After 9/11 4/10 Americans acknowledged some feelings of prejudice against Muslims and about ½ of non Muslims in west perceived Muslims as violent. What are some of the ways teenagers hold prejudices and discriminate against each other? Religion, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, body type Framing – How does framing affect prejudice? People respond in a prejudiced fashion or not depending on how the situation is frame. --if aware of the effects of framing, less likely to succumb to it.

Stereotypes, Prejudice and Discrimination
Stereotype - Overgeneralized beliefs about a group of people. Example: Prejudice - unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members 3 components: Discrimination - An action based on a prejudice (behavior). Stereotype – all good looking women are selfish and egotistical; all blondes are dumb; all teachers are…. Discrimination – the teacher gives As only to Asians Prejudice is an attitude; Discrimination is a behavior

Prejudice How Prejudiced Are People?
To learn about levels of prejudice we assess what they say and do. Judging by what Americans say, gender and racial attitudes have changed significantly. America’s approval of interracial marriage has soared. Nearly everyone agrees that children of all races should attend the same school, and women and men should receive the same pay for the same job But subtle prejudice lingers – dance, dating marrying people admit they feel uncomfortable with someone of a different race -Wal-Mart Suit to the Supreme Court – class action suit (1.5M women) that it systematically discriminated against women paying them less them similarly situated men and denying them promotions Prejudice can not only be subtle but also automatic and unconscious. Gender discrimination – people tend to see fathers as more intelligent then their mothers Pay more to men who drive a machine to take care of our streets than to those who take care of our children World wide women are more likely to live in poverty and are less literate (69% vs. 83%) -Women can’t drive in Saudi Arabia -Boys are still valued more than girls today - Female infanticide = 101 million “missing women” How do Piaget’s concepts of schema, assimilation and accommodation related to prejudice? Schema – how we categorize the world around us. Assimilate – when we learn something new we assimilate that info into our existing schemas When what we learn conflicts with a schema, we need to adjust our schemas through accommodation Hopefully, prejudiced schemas are accommodated quickly when we learn positive qualities about a person or group

Automatic Prejudice Implicit racial associations: Many people harbor unconscious racial associations – to some extent they are explicit (conscious; we are aware of them), but researchers believe most are implicit (we are unaware of them- prejudice is unconscious, more subtle, unthinking) Ex. Think your not prejudiced, but feel uncomfortable in situations when have to interact with people of a different race or religion. Ex. People to longer to identify pleasant words with black sounding names (peace and paradise with names such as Latoya and Denzel) Unconscious patronization: Many people evaluate performance based on racial stereotypes holding low expectations and standards resulting in inflated praise and insufficient criticism hindering minority student’s academic achievement Racial influenced prejudice - people more often mistakenly shot targets who were black. Priming people with a flashed black rather than white face makes them more likely to misperceive a flashed tool as a gun Seeing black – the more a person’s facial features are perceived as typical of their racial category, the more likely they are to elicit race-based responding. Research indicated that the more black a person locked, the more criminal police officers identified them as such. Reflexive boldly responses – studies have detected implicit prejudice in facial responses and activation of amygdala– demonstrates implicit prejudice.

Automatic Prejudice Implicit racial associations: harboring unconscious racial associations Unconscious patronization: evaluate performance based on racial stereotypes low expectations result in inflated praise and insufficient criticism hindering minority student’s academic achievement Racial influenced perceptions - people more often mistakenly shot targets who were black. Seeing black – the more a person’s facial features are perceived as typical of their racial category, the more likely they are to elicit race-based responding. Reflexive boldly responses – studies have detected implicit prejudice in facial responses and activation of amygdala– demonstrates implicit prejudice.

Homosexual and Heterosexual
Is it just race? NO Palestinians and Jews Homosexual and Heterosexual Men and Women But women have some things going for them like……

Which person would you want to have a long term relationship with?
2/3 of people said they preferred a boy baby over a girl if they could only have one Most people feel more positively about women than men (w. are more nurturing, sensitive, less aggressive—traits that people like) 66% of women picked computer generated face (b) – Research found that the feminized face conveys a likeable image more associated with a committed father.

Social Roots of Prejudice
Social inequalities – justify stereotypes Blame the victim dynamic – victims of mistreatment are held partially responsible for their problems Example: Social Identities – portion our self-concept derived from perceived membership in a social group In-Group – people with whom we share a common identity Out-group – People with whom we don’t share a common identity In Group Bias – tendency to favor our own group Solon vs. Twinsburg Girls rule, boys drool Social Inequities – prejudice justifies social inequities ( Just world phenomenon –people get what they deserve) Ex. Slaves had traits that justified enslaving them (lazy, ignorant, irresponsible) women are unassertive, but sensitive – perfect for traditional roles Conservative politicians who say that AA are responsible for their economic plight In-group vs. Out-group Social identities – through these we assoc. ourselves with certain groups and contrast ourselves with others In-group – “us” people with whom we share a common identity Out-group – “them” people perceived different or apart from our in-group. We reserve our most intense dislike for out-group rivals most like us Ex. Shia v. sunni, hutu v. tutsi, n. ireland protestant v. s irish catholic -numerical minorities such as Scots in Britain are especially conscious of their social identities (Scotts more aware of national identity than English) Predisposed to prejudice against strangers – to distinguish enemies from friends In-group Bias – favoring one’s one group – even arbitrary distinctions by grouping people with toss of a coin (Comet Challenge – grouped by different groups within the school) - social identities promote in-group bias Ex. 5 year old boys think boys are better than girls and visa versa Solon v. Twinsburg Scapegoat theory – prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame (passions of terror contribute to scape-goating) Prejudice leads to frustration Facing threats to destruction of “our world” tends to heighten patriotism and increase aggression toward out-groups After 9/11 people lashed out at Arab American; after Pearl Harbor Japanese Americans -Students who experience failure or made to feel insecure restore self esteem by disparaging other students Ex. Increased support for Pres. Bush after 9/11 Receive bad grades look for someone to blame – minority students Disparaging or belittling a despised outgroup provides people with a heightened sense of their own self worth Economy not doing well in Ohio, people blame Unions

Emotional Roots of Prejudice
Scapegoat Theory – theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame Example:

Cognitive Roots of Prejudice
Categorization Out-group homogeneity – overestimating the similarity within other groups Example: Other-race effect (aka own-race bias, or cross-race effect) – the tendency to recall faces of ones own group more accurately than faces of other races Vivid cases – tend to remember vivid cases more easily Just-world phenomenon – tendency to believe that people get what they deserve Hindsight bias Example 1. Categorization by categorizing people into groups, we stereotype them, biasing perceptions about their - Out-group homogeneity – we recognize how greatly we differ from other individuals in our in-groups but overestimate the similarity of those within other groups Ex. People in an ethnic group seem more alike than they really are in apprearance personality and attitude Other-race effect – the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. (aka cross-race effect or own race bias) - Begins around 3-9 months of age - Chinese student living in Solon for a long time exhibit less other-race effects, but a Solon student might think all Chinese look alike Vivid Cases – we over-generalize from vivid memorable cases ie. 9/11 Muslim terrorist created an exaggerated stereotype of Muslims, when most have no connection with terrorism. Just world phenomenon – world is just, therefore people get what they deserve and deserve what they get EX. Those who succeed get what the wealth, those who don’t deserve their poor misfortune Hindsight bias is a work also – rape victims, abused spouses AIDS patients got what they deserved Study that illustrated the phenomenon of blaming the victim: given a detailed story about a women on a date to two different groups – the stories were identical except for their ending – in one, the girl is raped, the other, the girl does not get raped. The girl who was raped got what she deserved –in hindsight they said “she should have known better”

Jill, a female employee at ACME Industries, recently complained that she had been sexually harassed by one of her male supervisors. Write a comment from a male worker that would demonstrate in-group bias. Write a comment that would demonstrate scapegoat theory. Write a comment that would demonstrate the cognitive roots of prejudice.

Upon hearing of the complaint from Jill , Kurt, a fellow employee, commented, “If the women around here would stop some of their flirting, they'd be left alone.” Bryan, another co-worker, quickly added, “If the women in this country stopped trying to act like men, they'd all be treated with more respect.” Explain how these insensitive remarks illustrate some of the social, emotional, and cognitive roots of prejudice.

Psychology of Aggression
Aggression – any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy Always involves Varies from Not Aggression – any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy Ex. A soldier who intentionally kills a dangerous enemy A child who tries to hit another child with a toy A form of aggression against another person in which the aggression is used as a means of securing some reward or to achieve an external goal such as a victory. Unlike hostile aggression, harm to others is incidental and is not the perceived goal.

Which of these are Aggression?
Two men fight for a piece of bread The warden of the prison executes a convicted criminal A boxer gives his opponent a bloody nose A hunter kills an animal and mounts it as a trophy A man viciously kicks a cat

The Biology of Aggression
Genetic Influences Neural Influences Biochemical Influences Aggression is not an instinct – varies too much from culture to culture, but biology does influence aggression Genetic Influence Animals have been bread for aggressiveness (Pit Bulls vs. Poodles) Twin studies – one twin is aggressive, the other will be Y chromosome – most well known genetic marker for aggression 2. Neural Influence - no one spot in brain controls aggression, bcs aggression is a complex behavior that occurs in particular contexts - neural impulses in brain when provoked, facilitate aggression -frontal lobe inhibits aggression – diminished activity in frontal lobes which control impulses of violent criminals Biochemical Influences Testosterone correlates with irritability, assertiveness, impulsiveness and low tolerance for frustration. Correlates with delinquency, drug use, aggressive bullying. With age testosterone levels decrease Violent criminals – low levels of serotonin and higher than ave. testosterone levels Handling a gun an a victorious fans – saliva had increased testosterone levels Alcohol influences aggression - more likely to become violent while intoxicated Genetic Influences Genetic

Aggression Theories Aversive Events Social and cultural influences
Frustration-aggression principle – blocking an attempt to achieve a goal creates anger Fight or flight reaction to stress Adverse stimuli – physical pain, insults, high temperatures etc. can create anger Example: Social and cultural influences Reinforcement – experience has taught that aggression pays Aggression higher when: Aggression-replacement program – Theories of Aggression Frustration – aggression principle – frustration creates anger, which can generate aggression Ex. Pitchers more likely to hit a batter, when frustrated by previous batter’s home run, the current batter hitting a home run last time at bat, or a teammate having been hit in previous inning. Ex. Parents don’t let you go out on Friday night you may…. You lose the election for class president, you may… (spread false rumors) Fight or flight - organisms response to stress (9/11 American’s responded with readiness to fight) Hot temperatures often lead people to react to provocations with greater hostility. Social and cultural influences Bandura’s social learning theory – children who imitate adults or other children may become more aggressive Reinforcement – animals who successfully fought to get food and mates become increasingly aggressive Ex. Bullying brings respect of classmates, bullying behavior increases – learned response Rejection – intensifies aggression. Students mocked by peers likely to respond with aggression, if early experienced social rejection/ostracism Minimal father care = double the incarceration rate for male youths Discipline with beatings = model violence - Aggression-replacement program – encourage parents to reinforce desirable behaviors and frame statements positively (one program has reduced re-arrest rates of juvenile offenders by teaching youths and parents communication skills, training them to control anger, and encouraging more thoughtful moral reasoning

Aggression Theories -Observing models of aggression
Rape myth – s -Social scripts – mental tapes for how to act provided by our culture i.e. media -video games and violence Observing TV violence tends to desensitize people to cruelty and prime them to respond aggressively when provoked -rape myth - Portrayals of women as initially fleeing but subsequently enjoying coercive sexual encounters illustrate what is known as the rape myth. Most rapists accept the rape myth – some women enjoy rape and get “swept away by being taken” Violent pornographic perpetrate the myth that many women enjoy aggressive sexual encounters Watching a large # of violent movies makes sexual aggression seem less serious (women aren’t seriously harmed by rape), makes a women’s friendliness seem more sexual and makes own spouse seem less attractive Exposure to violent pornography increases punitive behavior towards women Acquiring Social scripts Social scripts – Culturally modeled guides for how to act in various situations A significant danger of media violence is that impressionable viewers are subsequently more likely to enact the social scriptsprovided by the media. One violent TV program can prime aggressive thoughts -Researchers Brad Bushman and Craig Anderson have noted that the correlation between viewing violence and behaving aggressively nearly equals the correlation between smoking and cancer In contrast to watching violence on television, participating in violent video games involves role-playing aggression Research on the effects of playing violent video games provides clear evidence that disconfirms the catharsis hypothesis Kids who play violent video games get into more arguments and fights

Your psychology class is studying aggression
Your psychology class is studying aggression. Phyllis, an outspoken student, says, “I think one big cause of aggression are those horrible violent video games. Boys are the only ones who like those games, and they are way more violent than girls.” Evaluate Phyllis' statement according to psychological findings about the biological factors of aggression and the psychological and social-cultural factors of aggression.

Attraction 5 Factors of Attraction Proximity Physical Attractiveness
Similarity Reciprocal Liking Reward theory of attraction 5 Factors of Attraction

Proximity Proximity Mere exposure effect- Increased attraction to novel stimuli that become more familiar The more we are exposed to something, the more we like it Example: Proximity – geographic nearness = predictor of friendships Mere exposure effect – familiarity breeds fondness Taiwanese man wrote over 700 letters to his girlfriend requesting her to marry. She did marry the mailman IBM training EX. Equally attractive women silently attended a 200-student class for zero, 5, 10, or 15 class sessions. When shown slides of each woman, students in the class rated the women who had attended the most class sessions as the most attractive. EX. People prefer a mirror image photographs of themselves, while friends prefer the actual image Ex. We like a song the more we are exposed to it. On average, Internet-formed friendships and romantic relationships are more likely than relationships formed in person to last beyond two years. When conversing online with someone for 20 minutes, participants in one study felt more attraction toward that person than they did for someone they talked with face to face. Mere exposure effect is adaptive – what is familiar is safe, unfamiliar dangerous

Attraction The power of physical attractiveness
We also like those who like us – especially when our self image is low

The Hotty Factor 2. Physically attractiveness predicts
They are perceived as than less attractive counterparts. We are attracted to

Similarity 3. Similarity Birds of the same feather do flock together.
Paula Abdul was wrong- Birds of the same feather do flock together. Similarity breeds content. Friends and couples are more likely to share common attitudes beliefs and interests The more alike people are, the more likely they will like each other in the future

Reciprocal Liking 4. Reciprocal Liking - You are more likely to like someone who likes you. Especially when Why? Except in elementary school!!!! We also like those who like us – especially when our self image is low

Reward theory of Attraction
5. Reward Theory of Attraction - We continue relationships that offer more rewards than costs Associating with people that are attractive is When someone works with us, When a person lives or works close to us, it costs less time and effort to develop the friendship and enjoy the benefits. Attractive people are aesthetically pleasing and associating with them can be socially rewarding.

Beauty and Cultural Standards
Obesity is so revered among Mauritania's white Moor Arab population that the young girls are sometimes force-fed to obtain a weight the government has described as "life-threatening".

Are these cultures really that different?

Beauty and Biological “Universals”

Beauty and Psychology Led to believe someone has appealing traits (honest, humorous,) rather than unappealing (rude, unfair, abuses) – we perceive the person to be more attractive

Romantic Love Love Passionate Love – intense positive absorption of another Which emotion theory? Companionate Love – deep affectionate attachment Equity – both partners receive in proportion to what they give Example: Self-disclosure – revealing of intimate details Example Passionate love – an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another person, usually at the beginning of a relationship Two Factor Theory of Emotion - - helps explain Passionate love -emotions have 2 ingredients – physical arousal and cognitive appraisal – both factors must be present in order to experience emotion. Men who were aroused (erotic material, running in place, humorous monologues) and were aroused, felt more attracted to the women. to be aroused and assoc some of the arousal to a person is to feel passion …adrenaline makes the heart grow fonder Companionate Love – the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those we have had a long relationship with Love is adaptive – passionate love produces children (which is often fleeting); companionate helps children survive over time (finding a mate with compatible interests and background—less likely to leave) Ingredients for loving relationship Equity – people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it. When both partners freely give and receive, when they share decision making their chance for sustained and satisfying companionate love are good. ie. Sharing household chores, sharing possessions, giving emotional support, promoting caring about each other’s welfare -Self Disclosure – revealing of intimate details about ourselves -people who write more about their emotions have longer lasting relationships

Research indicates that we often form more positive impressions of beautiful people than of those who are physically unattractive. Explain how advertisements and movies might encourage this tendency. Use your knowledge of the factors that facilitate interpersonal attraction to suggest how people could be influenced to feel more positively about those who are physically unattractive. Students should explain that we tend to feel more positively toward attractive people through two main areas of attraction research: proximity and physical attractiveness. Proximity research indicates that the closer we feel to others, the more attractive we find them to be. The mere-exposure effect predicts that the more often we see an individual (such as someone in an ad or a movie), the more attractive we find that person and the more positive our behavior toward the person. Research on physical attractiveness indicates that our standards for attractiveness are influenced by cultural standards (e.g., for thinness) and biological “universals” (e.g., a youthful-looking appearance and a symmetrical face). People who meet these cultural and biological standards of attractiveness are more likely to appear more often in ads and movies, resulting in our positive behavior toward them.

Altruism Altruism - unselfish regard for the welfare of others
Ex: 9/11 people across the country donated time and money to assist

Prosocial Behavior Bystander Effect - Tendency for a bystander to be less likely to help if other people are present Example: Causes: Diffusion of Responsibility – When many people share the responsibility we think someone else will help 2. Pluralistic Ignorance - People decide what to do by looking to others – a lack of reaction is interpreted as a non-emergency situation

Altruism

Norms for Helping Social exchange theory – we want to maximize the benefits and minimize the costs Social Norms that Influence Altruism Reciprocity norm – Social-responsibility norm –

While walking through a busy city park, Mr
While walking through a busy city park, Mr. Cruz experiences sharp chest pains that indicate to him the onset of a heart attack. Describe several things Mr. Cruz should do to increase the chances that someone will come to his aid and quickly provide him with appropriate medical attention. Explain the rationale for your advice in light of research on altruism and the decision-making process underlying bystander intervention. While walking through a busy city park, Mr. Cruz experiences sharp chest pains that indicate to him the onset of a heart attack. Describe several things Mr. Cruz should do to increase the chances that someone will come to his aid and quickly provide him with appropriate medical attention. Explain the rationale for your advice in light of research on altruism and the decision-making process underlying bystander intervention. Students should use research findings related to the bystander effect to explain what Mr. Cruz might do to increase the chances that someone will come to his aid: He could shout for help (because the research indicates that we are more likely to be helped if others know we are in need of help and if they are not preoccupied by other concerns), and/or he could move to an area of the park where there are a few people in his demographic group (because we are more likely to be helped by a few others who feel similar to us than we are likely to be helped in a large crowd).

Conflict and Peacemaking
Conflict – a perceived incompatibility of goals actions and ideas Destructive Social Processes Social trap we harm our collective well being by following our personal interests Non-zero sum game Distorted Perception Example:

Enemy Perceptions Mirror-image perceptions – mutual views seen by conflicting people Example: Self-fulfilling prophecy – perceptions that can lead to their own fulfillment

Conflict and Peacemaking
Contact Cooperation Superordinate goals – shared goals achieved through cooperation Communication Conciliation GRIT – strategy designed to decrease international tension

Social Psychology How we think about, influence and relate to one another Attitude Attraction Group Behavior Aggression Social Psychology - Studying the.

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Social Psychology How we think about, influence and relate to one another Attitude Attraction Group Behavior Aggression Social Psychology - Studying the.

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Presentation on theme: "Social Psychology How we think about, influence and relate to one another Attitude Attraction Group Behavior Aggression Social Psychology - Studying the."— Presentation transcript:

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