1. Industrial Sources of Alcohols: Carbon Monoxide and Ethene 8-4 Methanol is commercially synthesized from synthesis gas, a mixture of CO and H 2 : A change of catalyst leads to the production of 1,2-ethanediol:

2. Ethanol can be prepared by the fermentation of sugars or the hydration of ethene:

3. Synthesis of Alcohols by Nucleophilic Substitution 8-5 If the required halides are available, the corresponding alcohols can be prepared by S N 2 and S N 1 processes using hydroxide and water respectively as nucleophiles. These methods have some drawbacks: Bimolecular elimination is possible in hindered systems Tertiary halides form carbocations which may undergo E1 reactions. The use of polar, aprotic solvents alleviates some of these problems.

4. The problem of elimination in S N 2 reactions of oxygen nucleophiles with secondary or sterically encumbered, branched primary substrates is the use of acetate as a less basic nucleophile. Step 1: Acetate formation (S N 2 reaction) Step 2: Conversion to alcohol (hydrolysis)

5. Synthesis of Alcohols: Oxidation-Reduction Relation between Alcohols and Carbonyl Compounds 8-6 Oxidation and reduction have special meanings in organic chemistry. A process that adds electronegative atoms such as halogen or oxygen to a molecule constitutes an oxidation. A process that removes hydrogen from a molecule also constitutes an oxidation. The reversal of either of these two steps constitutes a reduction. Step-by-Step Oxidation of CH 4 to CO 2:

6. Aldehydes and primary alcohols, ketones and secondary alcohols can be interconverted using reduction and oxidation reactions involving 2 atoms of hydrogen: Reduction of carbonyl compounds is carried out using hydride reagents.

7. Alcohols can form by hydride reduction of the carbonyl group The carbonyl functional group is polarized due to the high electronegativity of the carbonyl oxygen atom: The carbonyl carbon can be attacked by a nucleophilic hydride ion, H -, furnished by a hydride reagent. Sodium borohydride, NaBH 4, and lithium aluminum hydride, LiAlH 4, are commonly used for hydride reductions because their solubilities are higher in common organic solvents than LiH and NaH.

8. These reductions are achieved by the addition of a H - ion to the electropositive carbon and a proton to the electronegative oxygen.

9. The reactivity of NaBH 4 is much lower than a free hydride ion, and NaBH 4 can be used in protic solvents such as ethanol. The mechanism of a sodium borohydride reduction involves: Donation of H - to the carbonyl carbon Simultaneous protonation of the carbonyl oxygen by a solvent molecule Combination of the boron fragment with the ethoxide ion to yield sodium ethoxyborohydride The resulting sodium ethoxyborohydride is capable of another three reductions, thus four equivalents of aldehyde or ketone can be reduced to alcohol.

10. The reactivity of LiAlH 4 is much greater than that of NaBH 4 and is less selective in its reactions. LiAlH 4 reacts vigorously with water and ethanol and must be used in an aprotic solvent such as diethyl ether. All four hydrogens in a LiAlH 4 molecule are available for reductions, thus lithium aluminum hydride can reduce four aldehyde or ketone molecules to alcohols. After the reaction is carried out, aqueous acid is added to consume the excess reagent and release the product alcohol from the tetraalkoxyaluminate.

11. Alcohol synthesis by reduction can be reversed: chromium reagents. Alcohols can be oxidized back to aldehydes and ketones using chromium (VI) compounds. During this process, the yellow-orange Cr(VI) species is reduced to a deep green Cr(III) species. K 2 Cr 2 O 7 or Na 2 Cr 2 O 7, or CrO 3 are commonly used Cr(VI) reagents. Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to ketones in aqueous solution:

12. Primary alcohols tend to overoxidize to carboxylic acids when oxidized in aqueous solution: Overoxidation of primary alcohols is not a problem in the absence of water. The oxidizing agent, pyridinium chlorochromate (pyH + CrO 3 Cl - ) can be used in dichloromethane to successfully oxidize these alcohols: PCC oxidation is also used with secondary alcohols instead of the aqueous chromate method to minimize side reactions and improve yields. Tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized by chromium reagents since the alcoholic carbon atom carries no hydrogen atoms and cannot readily form a double bond with the oxygen.