1. Surveys The most widely used data-gathering device in sociology

2. Surveys  Survey research rests on sampling.  A sample is simply the collection of people from whom you are gathering data.  There are tons of ways to sample, but we want to be sure that we sample with generalizabilty in mind.

3. Surveys  Surveys can use probability and non- probability sampling.  Recall probability sampling... Simple Random Sample Systematic Random Sample Cluster Sampling Stratified Random Sampling  Proportionate  Disproportionate

4. Surveys  Surveys can use probability and non-probability sampling.  Nonprobabilty... Availability Quota Purposive Snowball  Remember: Although not generalizable to all persons, a nonprobability sample can still represent the target population. If you control for factors that bias your sample (establish nonspuriousness), relationships between variables can be generalized to other populations.

5. Surveys  What type of sampling does the General Social Survey use???  In 2002, it was a multistage cluster sample. It is a full probability sample of US households, meaning that each house had an equal chance of being selected.  Persons in households were selected systematically to make demographic characteristics of the sample equivalent to the characteristics of the U.S. population.

6. Surveys  What are the implications of the General Social Survey’s sampling???  The GSS is an adults-only survey of persons in households. Therefore, it underrepresents: 18 – 24 year-olds (many not living in households— military, college, roaming) 65 and over (many not living in households— vacations, RVs, assisted living) Persons who live in large households (only one person per household is interviewed) Homeless and some poor (not in official households, in shelters, on streets)

7. Surveys  Sampling is a technique for selecting subjects. So what is a survey?  A process of presenting a standard series of questions to a sample of persons.  The purpose is to accurately reflect the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of the sample, so that one can generalize accurate information to some larger population.  Most widely used technique in sociology because it is best suited for looking at the complex social world. To capture that world, we must sample from it, and measure many different aspects of it.

8. Surveys  Types of Surveys:  The survey or questionnaire can be: Written document filled out by the sample’s respondents  alone  in groups  or individually in group settings (group administered) Face-to-face interview, with questions read by an interviewer Telephone interview Electronic survey

9. Surveys  Survey Delivery:  Written Surveys: Mail Group Administered Questionnaires Drop-off Surveys  Electronic Surveys: Distributed as E-mail Web pages—sampling can be done via normal methods, but often aren’t Public computers in high-traffic areas In the future:  Files sent via mail, replacing written surveys  Mixed formats offered to subjects (choose: pen-and-paper, web page, file on disk)

10. Surveys  How is the General Social Survey Delivered and Administered???  The GSS is a one-on-one interview. An interviewer asks subjects questions.  In 2002 they used computer assisted personal interviewing (CAPI). A computer program provided questions and interviewers punched in answers, much like in telephone polling with CATI.

11. Surveys  Before Choosing a type of survey, you should consider four (4) key issues: 1.Respondent Attitude: Think like a subject. How will they react to the way they are approached? 2.Nature of Questions: Open-ended and scale questions would be difficult over the phone. You have to consider whether respondents can adequately answer your questions via your medium.

12. Surveys  Before Choosing a type of survey, you should consider four (4) key issues: 3.Cost: What can you afford? Target population, geographic distribution, and type of questionnaire all affect costs. 4.Generalization needs: If you need a broad sample, you can’t do drop-off surveys. If you want to sample from the elderly, you should avoid electronic surveys as currently conceived.

13. Surveys  So you have to think about the strengths and weaknesses of your survey delivery method.  Break into Five (5) groups. 1.Mailed 2.Group Administered 3.Drop Off 4.Face-to-Face Interviews 5.Telephone  Spend twenty (20) minutes generating strengths and weaknesses of your group’s survey delivery type.

14. Surveys  You must weigh the strengths and weaknesses of the survey delivery methods to choose the one that is appropriate and feasible.  The following slides consider the strengths and weaknesses of five delivery methods (the lists are not exhaustive).

15. Surveys  Mailed  Strengths versus Weaknesses

16. Surveys—Mailed  Strengths  Cost—The greatest cost in most businesses is wages. Mailed surveys reduce labor compared with face-to-face, phone or group administered. However, data entry can cost much unless you can scan forms.  Convenience for participants  Reduced Bias—no interviewer  Facilitates generalizability—Easy to reach more people over large area  Weaknesses  Lower response rates, compared with telephone (may be declining) and face- to-face  Challenges to accurate response: Assumes physical skills Literacy language abilities This likely biases results.  Interpretations of Questions can be inaccurate—bias from no interviewer to assist.

17. Surveys  Group Administered  Strengths versus Weaknesses

18. Surveys—Group Administered  Strengths  Higher response rate, especially if a captive audience such as school.  Permits complex questions—Greater specificity and variation in question types because there’s someone to answer questions and explain.  Good for educationally challenged and children  Fast way to get sample.  Inexpensive, especially if you don’t hire many people. Data entry is still an issue  Weaknesses  Challenges to generalizability—Hard to get a broad sample. Target population must be pretty specific.  Scheduling. Requires a block of time convenient for all.  Inaccuracy—behavioral problems in groups may distract respondents or even lead to “playful” responses

19. Surveys  Drop Off  Strengths versus Weaknesses

20. Surveys—Drop Off  Strengths  Convenient for respondents, like mail survey.  Higher response rates than mailed survey because the researcher has a presence (if dropped off at residence) or organizational endorsement (if dropped off at an organization).  Weaknesses  Time. Because of the personal contact, this uses more researcher time.  Challenges to generalizability— Hard to get a broad sample. Target population must be pretty specific because of the limited ability to make contact with different people. Lack of control over distribution.  Lower response rates than face-to-face and telephone (possibly)  Inaccuracy—Behavioral problems in groups, “playful” responses.

21. Surveys  Face-to-Face Interviews  Strengths versus Weaknesses

22. Surveys—Face-to-Face  Strengths  Permits complex questions—Greater specificity and variation in question types because there’s someone to answer questions, explain, and probe.  Highest response rate. Personal appeal increases likelihood that respondents will participate.  Convenience—Allows rescheduling of visits (helps with response rate too).  Reduces disability bias— interviewer may assist respondents  Weaknesses  Cost. Payroll, driving, and so forth are expensive compared with other forms.  Increased Bias. The appearance and style of the interviewer can bias participation or answers. Imagine questions about drug use or sexuality.  Oral format limits types of questions that you can ask, although visuals may be used.

23. Surveys  Telephone Interviews  Strengths versus Weaknesses

24. Surveys—Telephone  Strengths  Permits complex questions— Greater specificity and variation in question types because there’s someone to answer questions, explain, and probe. Not as good as face-to-face.  Higher response rate (maybe) Personal appeal increases likelihood that respondents will participate. Not as high as face-to-face.  Convenience—Allows rescheduling of visits (helps with response rate too).  Fast—surveys can be quickly completed  Facilitates generalizability—Easy to reach more people over large area  Weaknesses  Cost. Payroll is still an issue, but is cheaper than face-to-face.  Increased Bias: The linguistic style of the interviewer can bias participation or answers. Imagine questions about drug use or sexuality.  Systematic bias: If using area codes for sampling frame in an era of cell phones. Type of household that answers the phone. Who has a phone?  Limits on the types of questions that you can ask: relies on short-term memory and quick recall visuals are not possible  Falling response rates because of American attitude toward phone. Americans hang up on strangers or screen calls Phone interruption is an annoyance

25. Surveys  Electronic Surveys  Strengths versus Weaknesses

26. Surveys—Electronic  Strengths  Cheap. Depending on type, data are automatically entered by respondents  Ease of editing questionnaire and analyzing data  Fast—Distribution and response time is reduced.  Higher response rates (maybe) than other methods, sometimes.  Reduced bias—You get more candid responses. One researcher found: Number of persons having sex with same-sex individuals doubles compared with mail and face-to-face surveys.  Some complexity permitted. Interaction can be available, either through faqs, e-mail, or call to researchers.  Weaknesses  Selection Bias: Must have computer access, but can be used to generalize to computer-access population. Lacks complete sampling frame  Construction of questionnaire can be challenging—often need web or computer expertise  Challenges to accurate response: Assumes physical skills Literacy and language abilities Instructions may get tedious and confuse respondents This likely biases results.  Glitches can kill participation for some  Long-term response rates may be no better than other survey forms.

27. Surveys—Electronic  Of the types of electronic survey, those that carry us toward the population coverage of mail surveys and the response rates of the face-to-face survey will be judged the best.  Current forms ranked from worst to best: 1.Public computers in high-traffic areas—as bad as man on the street convenience samples. 2.Web pages—sampling can be done via normal methods, but often aren’t 3.Distributed as E-mail  Hybrids will likely rule the electronic survey in the future.

28. Surveys—Electronic  In a recent proposal, I requested funding (that I didn’t get) to mail a survey, send a disk, and notify the respondent that they could fill it out on-line too.  But I had a specific sample in mind for a select population that would likely have internet access and be computer literate.