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Elk (Cervus elaphus ) Hunter Slade
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Taxonomy Kingdom - Animalia Phylum - Chordata Class - Mammalia
Order - Artiodactyla Family - Cervidae Genus - Cervus Species – Cervus elephus
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Elk Basics Aka: Wapiti, Red deer Male = Bull Female = Cow Young = Calf
Yearling bull = Spike Female = Cow Young = Calf Group name = Gang Average life span = 8-12 years Four current subspecies in NA Average size compared to 6 ft man Life span: Oldest bull in unhunted pop: 14 -Oldest cow: 21 Bulls generally live greater than 10 years in unhunted -about 5 years in hunted Even in unhunted pops bulls usually live shorter due to rutting activites
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Range Prior to European settlement, there were more than 10 million elk in NA Historically occurred from northern British Columbia east to New York, south to South Carolina, and west to southern California, with populations likely extending south into Mexico Today, about one million elk live in the western United States, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia and North Carolina, and from Ontario west in Canada Not thought to have been native to Florida – 6 were brought here for a movie in 1967 and released on a ranch in Highlands County -Herd increased to 30 but dwindled and was last recorded at 10 in 1993 Elk are still hunted on private ranches and preserves but are not considered wild.
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Legal Status All four subspecies legal to hunt Depends on location
Some areas depleted Even states with small populations
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Identification Light tan coats 4 ½ to 5 ft tall at shoulder
Dark brown long haired mane White rump Legs darker in color 4 ½ to 5 ft tall at shoulder 6 ½ to 8 ft nose to rump Can weight between ,100 lbs Ivories 2nd largest member of deer family Females stand about 4 ½ feet tall at should and measure about 6 ½ feet from nose to rump on average Males stand about 5 feet at shoulder and measure about 8 feet from nose to rump on average Can weight between 500 and 1100 lbs when mature depending on the sex and subspecies Ivories are the top 2 canine teeth that are believed to be remenants of saber-like tusks that ancient elk species used to fight
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Identification - Males
Larger physical appearance Longer hair on mane Thicker necks in general Antlers/pedicels
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Identification - Males
Antlers Sweep backwards toward rump Chocolate brown with polished tips 50 inches each on average 12 lbs each on average Up to 20 lbs each Points on each side vary Drop in spring Velvet until fall Grow from pedicels like whitetails and moose. Start as spikes Points very -symmetrical a lot of times -can be non-typical Velvet until fall when rise in testosterone levels due to pre-rut signals blood flow to stop
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Identification - Female
Smaller body size Thinner hair on mane Thinner neck Very rarely have antlers Often 40% smaller at maturity ***Fun Fact*** Due to the fact that cows can have antlers (like other female cervids) hunting regulations state “Antlerless” or “Antlered” harvest.
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Identify the elk
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History Once approximately 10 million in NA
Reduced to less than 100,000 by early 1900s Unregulated hunting Pressure from domestic grazing Habitat destruction from timber harvest Urbanization Westward Expansion Populations total over 1 million today Ability to live in multiple habitat types Opportunistic feeding Positive reaction to management Reduced to less than 100,000 – mostly confined to Yellowstone
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Subspecies 22 Subspecies globally
Six separate subspecies in North America Rocky Mountain Roosevelt’s Tule Manitoban Eastern* Merriam’s* Some biologists believe that there are no true subspecies Elk were once found almost everywhere on the continent and it is said that when transplanted, they will take on characteristics of native elk within few generations. Color, size and antler appearance are due to environmental factors such as forage toxicity, not sub-speciation
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Subspecies – Rocky Mountain
Cervus elaphus nelsoni Located in Rocky Mountain West Now transplanted to other parts of country Largest antlers of all subspecies lbs Most of the elk that survived early settlement were Rocky Mountain Elk. They were about to hide in the rugged terrain and escape more easily. Elk from Yellowstone were hauled all over the nation to help restore herds, which is why Rocky Mountain Elk are found all over North America Rocky Mountain Elk number close to 1 million in North America and are found from New Mexico to north central British Columbia along the Rocky Mountains. Habitat for this elk includes forests, alpine meadows, dry desert valleys, and snowy mountain ridges. In the summer elk live at high elevations in semi-open forests and mountain meadows. In winter elk migrate to lower sheltered valleys and meadows.
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Subspecies – Roosevelt’s
Cervus elaphus roosevelti Located in Coastal Pacific Northwest Largest body size lbs Not largest antlers Darkest coats Live in dense cedars and fir coastal rainforests Roosevelt elk can be found in the Pacific coastal forests of northern California, Oregon, Washington, and Vancouver Island. In the summer they can be found in high open mountain meadows and in the winter months they travel to lower wooded slopes and dense woods. Eat berry bushes and willows all winter and grasses and leafy plants in summer, giving them largest body size. Darkest coats help them blend in with environment.
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Subspecies - Tule Cervus elaphus nannodes
Located in Central California Smallest of all subspecies lbs Extra long rows of teeth Spend time in “Tules” Found in California and once lived in large numbers in California's San Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. It is now a protected population in California in Owens Valley and at Point Reyes National Seashore. Elk from these reserves have been successfully transplanted and have established a few free roaming herds in other areas of California. Generally found in Semi-arid desserts and Hang out in marshes filled with “Tules” – long cattail like plants because they are being pushed into these areas by civilization Unlike many of the other subspecies which face harsh winters, Tule face hot, dry summer. They have adapted to require the least amount of water of all subspecies. Extra long rows of teeth for chewing coarse desert grasses
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Subspecies - Manitoban
Cervus elaphus manitobensis Located in Northern Great Plains Dark coats lbs Range from the southern Prairie Provinces of Canada (northern prairies and adjacent forests of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and north central Alberta). There is a small population in North Dakota. Coats are darker (not quite as dark as Roosevelt’s) but range from deep copper brown to light tan depending on location, season and gender.
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Subspecies – Eastern* Cervus elaphus canadensis
Officially extinct in 1880 Were located east of Mississippi
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Subspecies – Merriam’s*
Cervus elaphus merriami Extinct in 1908 Were located in the Southwest and Mexico
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Annual Cycle Summer Autumn Winter Spring Some herds are not migratory
Bachelor groups Feeding Autumn Harems Rut Winter Winter range Spring Return to summer range Birthing Some herds are not migratory Summer- -Females, calves, and yearling males together -Males in bachelor groups -Spend time feeding on lush grasses and wildflowers in summer ranges in higher country -Will browse on woody shrubs if food is scarce -By end of summer testosterone levels are high which signals the end of antler development and the start of rut Fall- -Males herd harems of females to mate with -They guard them very closely and will fight other males -Males bugel and grunt as part of mating ritual -Females in estrus (breeding receptivity) for only 12 hours – can occur up to 4 times in 20 day intervals if not bred -Rut ends and bachelor groups are reformed and cows regroup -Stay on summer range as long as possible because food is more nutritious -Move down to winter ranges as snow builds in high country - for elk at higher elevations/in mountains Winter- -spend time feeding on what is available -If there is snow, they will paw through to reach grasses underneath Spring- -As snow melts they return to summer ranges in higher elevation -Female give birth in summer ranges or on the migration to them (about 250 days after conception) Some herds not migratory but shift local habitats for different seasons
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Daily Activity Active day and night Peaks dawn and dusk
Like deer, elk activity peaks at dawn and dusk
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Reproduction Rubbing antlers Mud wallows Bugling Fighting
Cows in estrus Elk Fighting and Bugling Bulls have full antlers by september. They rub them on trees to remove velvet and polish them. Rubbing also releases energy and leaves his scent behind. Antlers are used by females and males alike to judge the size of the bull. Younger bulls will often back down from a fight with mature bulls with larger antlers. Will also wallow in mud if available to distribute scent and make him look more imposing Mature bulls that generally in the best physical condition are 6 to 8 years old. Younger bulls may try to butt in but generally do not get the chance. Bulls start bugling at the start of the rut. It gives females and other males clues about the bulls size. Generally the bigger and older the bull, the louder the bugle Like other cervids, elk fight to show dominance. Not fights to the death. Cows go into estrus (receptive breeding) for only about 12 hours. Can go into it up to 4 times on 20 day cycles but generally bred in either 1st or 2nd
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Calving 240 to 262 day gestation period Newborns Cows are protective
Nursery herds Survival rates? Elk have a day gestation period They give birth to 1 newborn Newborns weigh pounds. They have spots like young deer and are virtually scentless. Mother ingests all evidence of birth including placenta to help hide the newborn more. She will also ingest urine and feces to eliminate scent more. Cows leave the herd for 2-3 weeks to raise the calves. Calves lay hidden alone for most of the time with the mother returning to feed periodically Cows will fight and fend off smaller predators from their calves. It has been reported that in a few rare cases, they have detered grizzly bears away from the calves Once they rejoin the herd they form nursery herds, where a group of calves are babysat by a single cow. Gives mothers a chance to feed without having to be completely vigilant.
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Dispersal Males more likely than females
Females range adjacent to mother’s range Males rarely make contact with mother again Density dependent? Distance Varies greatly Some mothers kick young bulls out; sometimes not until they are 2.5 years Often kicked out or harem by dominate bull Females: -Often establish ranges either in or adjacent to mother’s homerange Males: -Rarely make contact with mother after dispersal Density dependent? -Study in Montana – limited evidence -Dispersal caused by increased populations on restricted range -Jackson elk INDEPENDENT of density -Elk seek areas with large number of other elk Distance: -Usually short distances -Montana study averaged 15.3 miles for bulls and 2.2 miles for cows
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Habitat Food, water, cover and space! Habitat depends on subspecies…
Woodland areas Early, mid- and late successional Security cover Large open areas Within 400 yards of woodland Winter habitat* The specific habitat depends on the subspecies (will be mentioned) but can be: -coastal coniferous rainforests -alpine meadows -dry desert valleys -hardwood forests Woodland habitat provides escape cover from human disturbance and predators. Wooded corridors provide travel lanes among seasonal habitats. Security cover- not species specific, must cover 90 percent of standing elk at 75 yards Open areas provide necessary herbaceous forage. Winter habitat is crucial for some subspecies of elk who spend time high in elevation during summer months Winter habitat are lowland areas that provide cover and some food sources during harsh winter months These areas are more threatened than summer ranges because the occupy areas that can be used by humans Logging, grazing, agriculture, and other land uses threaten these areas and threaten the elk populations that use them
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Habitat Pacific Northwest and California
Coastal coniferous rainforests Coastal prairie Mixed conifer forest Riparian hardwood forests and shrublands Oak woodlands Sagebrush steppe Grasslands -coastal coniferous rainforests -coastal prairie -mixed-conifer forest - xeric ponderosa pine forest and Douglas fir -riparian hardwood forests and shrublands – red alder and red alder williow communities on active floodplanes -Oak woodlands – Oregon white oak woodlands -sagebrush steppe -Grasslands - xeric onespike oatgrass-Idaho gumweed grassland
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Habitat Rocky Mountains Mixed-conifer forests Quaking aspen forests
Grasslands Alpine meadows Stream valley shrublands Floodplain riparian hardwood forest mixed-conifer forests – black spruce and white spruce willow quaking aspen forests - Grasslands - alpine rough fescue-Parry's oatgrass grassland alpine meadows stream valley shrublands floodplain riparian hardwood forest
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Habitat Northern Great Plains and Prairie Provinces
Quaking aspen parklands Shrublands Mixed hardwood-conifer forests Conifer forests quaking aspen parklands shrublands mixed hardwood-conifer forests conifer forests
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Habitat Southwest Shrublands Pinyon-juniper woodlands
Ponerosa pine and Douglas-fir forests Stream valley shrublands Floodplain riparian hardwood forest shrublands pinyon-juniper woodlands ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests stream valley shrublands floodplain riparian hardwood forest
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Home Range Varies greatly Largest recorded Influenced by many factors
1 – 95 sq. miles on average Larger for males Largest recorded 247 sq. mi. for males 149 sq. mi. for females Influenced by many factors precipitation forage availability – smaller when abundant juxtaposition of resources cover quality ambient temperature difficulty of travel population density plant phenology abundance of insects social behavior and human disturbance
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Diet Mostly opportunistic Green and dried grasses Forbs Woody plants
Browse Primary foods in spring and summer months- -native bluegrasses -rough fescue -Idaho fescue -prairie junegrass -needlegrasses and -bluebunch Dry grasses and browse are heavily consumed in the Autumn months Winter months- -prefer grass, but feed on -serviceberry -willow, -antelope bitterbrush -snowberry -mountain mahogany -winterfat -aspen shoots -western juniper -sagebrush -other shrub and browse species
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Other Grasses, Sedges, and Forbs
wheatgrasses fescues buckwheat elk sedge dandelion daisies prairie junegrass golden currant chokecherry beargrass fireweed American bistort scarlet falsemeadow clovers vetch Very opportunistic and will eat these even if they are not preferred
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Mortality Predation Calves Adults Wolves Coyotes Black bears
Grizzly bears Mountain lions Calves Adults Predation main source of calf mortality in the summer -2006 study found that in Washing, Wyoming and Idaho the mortality ranged from 44% to 98% -Mainly from bears, mountain lions, and coyotes Adults preyed upon too -Some areas have been observed that mortality caused by wolves did not differ between age classes -Many adults are old and in poor health -Will attack full grown males – antlers are more for sparring and long bodies make it difficult to escape quickly
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Mortality Disease Parasites Brucellosis Bovine tuberculosis
Chronic wasting disease (CWD) Parasites Meningeal worm Psoroptic mites Giant liver flukes Disease- Parasites do cause mortality but not a major effect on populations
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Mortality Human factors Combination of the two Hunting
Elk-vehicle collisions Combination of the two Hunting is the number one cause of mortality in most populations -A population in Idaho -Survival rate in bulls: 60% cows: 89% -cows hunted less Hunted pop segment in NM -Survival = 55% Non-hunted pop segment in NM -Survival = 91% Migrating vs Nonmigrating -Colorado -In 1.5 – 3 year old males -Migrating = 25% in during 2 year study -Non-migration = 89% during the 2 years High hunting pressure with dense roads strongly increases mortality -Hunted Idaho pop -Near roads -2 year and older bulls = 41% survival -yearling bulls = 44% survival -Unroaded -2 year and older bulls = 78% -yearling bulls = 79%
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Mortality Malnutrition and weather Winter mortality
Timing of estrus and birth date Birth weight Resistance to diseases and parasites Winter mortality Heavy snow beneficial? Winter mortality -Deep snow lowers ability to get food causing malnutrition -Lowers calf survival – small size and low fat reserves -Can lower bull survival – low fat reserves due to heavy rutting activities in fall Heavy snow can actually be beneficial Can delay plant growth in the spring, creating better forage in late summer and fall -Can be good
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Values Ecological Aesthetic Recreational Economic Grazing Prey Hunting
Viewing Economic Major source of money Ecological- Grazing helps to regenerate plant growth. -Food for carnivores such as wolves, mountain lions and bears Aesthetic- People love viewing them in the wild Recreational- People love to hunt them Economic- Money spent on hunting goes to fund landowners, managers, and wildlife agencies -People also spend money to view them on hikes and such Some view the hunting as unethical (often antihunters) but these people are often uninformed on the value of hunting (similar to deer hunting)
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Management Considerations
Overharvest Human disturbance Especially roads Habitat succession Invasive plants Climate change? Overharvest- -Can alter age ratio of bulls -Affects conception and birth dates -Late birth dates leads to more winter calf mortality due to calves not being old enough with good enough fat reserves -Can also change activity times, movement patterns, and habitat use Human disturbance- -Sensitive to human disturbance but can become accustomed to it (national parks) -Often reduces reproduction and calf survival -Roads -Usually avoid roads which alters movement patterns (particularly during rut and calving periods) -Causes different habitat use -Will use road areas when under pressure from non-human predators such as wolves Habitat succession- -Require all types of succession – open areas -Numbers declined in Rockys due to fire exclusion and lack of open areas -Fires causes increase in numbers in Idaho when burned areas turned to shrub fields with abundant browse -Declines when later succession of large tress took over Invasive Plants- -Reduce forage therefore reducing elk numbers -Spotted knapweed has replaced graminoids which lowers carrying capacity on winter ranges -Fire and overgrazing can help spread of invasives Climate change- -Weather patterns affect pop dynamics -Change in climate may affect pops -Predicted to be compensated for by range expansion to new geographic locations
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Management Considerations
Limiting Factors? Food Summer range Winter range Security cover Water Interspersion of habitat components Minimum habitat size To be determined by location
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Logistic Growth Can reach capacity Should be managed to stay below K
Time Accelerating Phase K Inflection Point (½ K) Decelerating Phase N dN/dt Inflection Point (½ K) K Once K is reached, populations will decline
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Habitat Management Assistance programs Component Assistance programs
Food WHIP, EQIP, PFW, CRP Winter Range WHIP, EQIP, PFW Transitional Range Security Cover CRP – Conservation Reserve Program -50% cost-share for establishing permanent cover and conservation practices, and annual rental payments for land enrolled in 10 to 15-year contracts. Additional financial incentives are available for some practices EQIP – Environmental Quality Incentives Program -Up to 75% cost-share for conservation practices in accordance with 5 to 10-year contracts. Incentive payments for certain management practices PFW – Partners for Fish and Wildlife Program -Up to 100% financial and technical assistance to restore wildlife habitat under minimum 10-year cooperative agreements WHIP – Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program -Up to 75% cost-share for conservation practices un- der 5 to 10-year contracts
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Habitat Management Open Area Management Burning Grazing Planting
-4 to 5 year rotation between February and May -Divide area into strips to allow for unburned areas adjacent to burned areas -Do not burn vegetation that is non fire tolerant elk forage Grazing- -Powerful tool to control succession -Ovoid overgrazing but allow for some disturbance to control succession -Keeping livestock off of winter ranges is important -Rotational grazing based on herd size, vegetation composition, and topography Planting- -Seed open areas with native grasses, forbs, and legumes -Provides winter and transitional range forage
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Habitat Managment Woodland management Burning Timber harvest Burning-
-Burn aspen and pine stands -Promotes new growth and sucker shoots -Reduces debris on ground that could hinder movement -Should keep some areas with debris for calving Timber harvest- -Selective and even aged harvest -Even aged (clearcutting) -Small designated areas -5-7 years for pines years for hardwoods -Selective -Open canopies to promote forb and grass growth for winter range
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Future Looking good Numbers are up in most places Current event…
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Current Event Elk-problems-prowl-farms-in-Washington.aspx
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References Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation
/ceel/all.html Discover the Outdoors NRCS content/uploads/2010/10/American-Elk.pdf
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References National Park Service
k_11.pdf
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