1. Section B: Acquiring, developing and performing movement skills
4. Theories related to the learning of motor skills

2. Syllabus
Description of the S/R bond and application of related theories
Associationist theories: operant conditioning
Cognitive theory: work of the Gestaltists
Observational learning: the work of Bandura

3. Stages of motor skill learning
Three stage model
Fitts and Posner (1967) identified the following model which has three phases
Cognitive
Associative
Autonomous
While each of these phases has certain characteristics associated with it, movement from one to another is seen to occur on a continuum

4. Cognitive phase
This is the first stage of learning experienced by a beginner who tries to work out and understand what is required to perform a new movement.
The novice might watch a demonstration of a skill and then try to perform the task.
It is a Short phase during which a trial and error process is used to help develop an early understanding of the parts of the skill.
The performer in this phase uses closed-loop control (When feedback is used to adjust performance) and relies heavily on feedback (Information received to help modify performance)
The coach might use manual and mechanical guidance and concentrate on extrinsic and positive feedback to offer encouragement and ensure improvement

5. Cognitive phase Used for beginners
The beginner is trying to get to grips with the basics while dealing with lots of visual, verbal and kinaesthetic information in the form of
Demonstrations (visual guidance)
Instructions (verbal guidance)
Initial trials/practice in the form of basic trial and error (kinaesthetic picture)
Emphasis is very much on early understanding or cognitive involvement (internalising information) , allowing a mental picture to be created so that initial plans of action can be formulated

6. Problems linked to the cognitive phase
Selective attention – what should I pay attention to
Information overload
Gross errors (uncoordinated movements)
Teaching/guidance needs to be clear, simple and concise.
Demonstrations are probably more effective and the coach may even need to manipulate the leaner’s limbs.

7. Associative phase This is often called the practice phase of learning.
The learner compares his/her current level of performance with that of a top level player.
Trial and error may again be used to achieve a smoother performance and fine tune any errors.
The feedback during the trial and error process may be internal as the player may now have more of an idea of the perfect movement.
During this phase the player begins to build up a mental framework of the task, with the parts of the skill – its subroutines – coded in the memory.
This framework is called a MOTOR PROGRAMME.
The player should now be able to use intrinsic feedback and begin to alter the level of skill, using negative feedback. Verbal and visual guidance could be used.

8. Associative phase
The learning process is generally longer than the cognitive phase, with the learner taking part in many hours of practice
The characteristics are:
Fundamental basics have been mastered and are becoming more consistent
Mental or early cognitive images of the skill have been associated with the relevant movements, enabling the coordination of the various parts of the skill to become smoother
Motor programmes are being developed
Gross error detection and correction are being practised
Skill are practised and refined under a variety of conditions
There is a gradual change to more subtle and detailed cue utilisation
More detailed feedback is given and used
There is greater use of internal/kinaesthetic feedback
There is an obvious change to the performance characteristics even though the skills are not yet automatic or consistently correct.

9. Autonomous phase
At this stage movements are perfected to the point where they are almost automatic.
The player can concentrate on the finer details of the task and the performance is completed with maximum efficiency.
This is a phase for experts, who must continue to practice if they want to remain at this top level.
Motor programs are firmly stored in the memory.
At this level of performance the player could benefit from both intrinsic and extrinsic feedback.
To remain in the autonomous phase, regular reference back to the associative phase is essential, even for highly skilled professionals, in order to reinforce motor programmes
After much practice and variety of experience, one moves into the autonomous phase

10. Autonomous phase The characteristics are as follows:
Performance of skill is almost automatic
Skill is performed easily and without stress
The performance is consistent with highly skilled movement characteristics
Skills can be adapted to meet different situations
It is habitual allowing focus to be on other aspects of the game
The performer is able to:
Process information easily, helping decision making
Concentrate on the relevant cues and signals from the environment
Concentrate on additional higher-level strategies, tactics and options available
Detect and correct errors without help

11. Autonomous phase Learning is still not over in this phase
Small improvements can still be made in terms of style and form and also psychological aspects
Self-evaluation
Mental practice
Stress management
Personal motivation

12. The stimulus-response bond
The relationship between a stimulus and the specific action that it initiates
These bonds form the basis of the associationist theories of learning
For example, when a badminton player sees their opponent at the rear of the court (stimulus) they may be conditioned to play their shot to the front (response)

13. The stimulus-response compatibility
The degree to which the response to a given stimulus appears natural
If a performer is presented with a situation in which they have been before and know how to react, their reaction time will be reduced

14. Operant conditioning Is a major connectionist theory
Concerned with changing the response in a given situation
Skinner (rats) and Pavlov (dogs)
To understand how it relates to PE, four points need to be remembered and applied to a practical situation.
It is necessary to structure a situation to bring about a desired response. This involved arranging the practice environment so it is a copy of the game situation.
This structure allows ‘behaviour shaping’ to take place. Behaviour shaping enables complex forms of behaviour to be learned in parts or small steps.
Performance will take the form of trial and error. This means the player will attempt the structured practice. Sometimes the wrong response will emerge but at other times the response will be correct.
Apply reinforcement to the response made by the player.

15. Pavlov’s experiment

16. Why should you avoid using punishment?
The predominant use of punishment normally works by creating a fear of failure, and this can often lead to performance decrements as athletes focus on the consequences of losing or making mistakes rather than on what needs to be done to be successful. Fear of failure can promote indecision, with consequent tentative responses and a tendency to choke in high-pressure situations. In hockey, for example, a winger needs to take risks by running at the full backs and committing his opponents; this will not always be successful but it only has to work once for a match- winning goal to occur. However, if the player fears a backlash from his coach if he loses the ball, he might become tentative and avoid responsibility by passing to a team mate. ‘Playing it safe’ is often a counterproductive tactic which has been linked to poorer performances. Fear of failure has also been linked to less enjoyable experiences in sport and increased drop-out rates.

17. Why should you avoid using punishment?
If you are working with athletes who are attention seekers, making an example of them by punishing them in front of others can actually reinforce the behaviour you want to eliminate. Poor behaviour, such as constantly turning up late for practice, is sometimes designed to provoke a response. The best way to deal with such behaviour is on a one-to-one basis in a private setting; otherwise it is likely to recur as it gives the attention seeker exactly what he craves.

18. Why should you avoid using punishment?
The predominant use of punishment as an approach to coaching doesn’t promote good relations between coach and athlete. It can lead to the build-up of hostility, resentment and discouragement, resulting in loss of motivation.

19. Cognitive learning theory
The major cognitive learning theory is the Gestalt Theory
The Gestalt theorists believe that skills are best presented to the learner as a whole problem. The learner will solve the problem by drawing on previous experience and by developing a perception of what is required.
The whole is greater than the sum of its parts
The learner must be motivated and have a positive self image in order to reach a solution. When it is reached, insight is developed and this marks a permanent stage in learning.
Insight learning – a learner is suddenly discovers the relationship between the many stimuli they have been faced with and “it all comes together”

20. Cognitive learning theory
It is important that further goals or problems are set in order to motivate the learner to develop their performance further
The association of S-R by trial-and-error learning has NO role to play in the cognitive perspective
What is learned within insight learning is therefore not a set of specific conditioned associations, but a real understanding of the relationship between the process and the means of achieving the end result
This whole learning approach allows learners to develop their own strategies and routes of understanding alongside general principles, thus enabling the quicker learners to progress at their own rate: this has obvious link to the promoting of motivation and the development of an individual’s full potential

21. The main differences between Connectionist Theories and Cognitive Learning Theory are as follows:-
Connectionist – skills are best delivered in parts. The development of the learning bond by connecting the stimulus with the response explains how we learn.
Cognitive – skills are best delivered as a whole. The development of insight occurring when the whole problem is solved explains how we learn.

22. Example of:
An example of the cognitive theory at work could be related to swimming.
Gestalt theorists would argue that stroke action is best taught as a whole and at no time should leg and arm action be practiced in isolation.
This gives opportunity to the individual to “work out” the most effective action for himself.
However, for the non swimmer, buoyancy aids would need to be used.
This is a form of mechanical guidance and would serve to simplify the whole task.
Gestalt theorists believe part learning to be inefficient because it does not present all the information necessary for the learner to develop total understanding or insight.

23. Observational learning (social learning)
Observational learning is a form of visual guidance usually associated with demonstration. The aim of a demonstration is to present the learner with a visual model which can be copied and matched.
Learning by imitation is a very powerful principle being both time saving and more interesting than a lengthy verbal explanation.
Demonstrations are important at all stages of learning. During the cognitive stage the novice will be able to grasp the general idea of what is required and be motivated by the exhibition. At the autonomous stage a demonstration is useful in highlighting detailed and specific points in performance.

24. Observational learning
Learning by demonstration is not a fail – safe method. A psychologist named Bandura indicates that observational learning takes place only if the learner can put four elements into place.
Attention: the learner must focus directly on the model. The teacher can use verbal guidance to hold the attention of the learner. The model of performance must be brief, attractive and meaningful.
Retention: the image of the demonstration must be stored or retained by the learner if it is to be copied successfully. Verbal guidance will prevent information overload and help hold the picture in the short term memory, but the demonstration should be repeated several times as insurance. The observer should be encouraged to picture the image in the mind’s eye. This process is called mental rehearsal. A good teaching technique to aid retention is to connect a second image to the demonstration. This technique is called symbolic rehearsal.
Motor reproduction: the learner must have the maturation, confidence and physical ability to copy or replicate the skill being modelled.
Motivation: a key element in learning and performance is motivation. In order to reproduce the model the observer must have the drive or motivation to learn

25. Observation of demonstration
Information processing
STAGE 1: Attention
depends on level of respect and attractiveness
STAGE 2: Retention
mental and symbolic rehearsal
STAGE 3: Motor reproduction
Sporting performance
appropriate to the capability level of the learner
STAGE 4: Motivation
depends on reinforcement, status of the model and importance of the task
Actual modelled performance is produced

26. Learning is seen as taking place within a social setting in the presence of others, with the learner and the socialising agent involved in a two-way interaction.
The behaviour is observed, the consequences are assimilated and the behaviour is then copied in the appropriate situation at the appropriate time.
Teachers and coaches often hope that the consequences of disciplining a certain team member for unacceptable behaviour will not only have an effect on the specific player, but will also affect the behaviour of other team members who are watching.

27. The degree of effect or endurance of observational behaviour will depend on several factors:
Appropriateness - if perceived to be appropriate it increases the probability of imitation
Relevance - young males are more likely to imitate male models of aggression than girls
Similarity - as young as 3 yrs and you are already beginning to recognise ‘gender roles’
Reinforcement - behaviour that’s rewarded will increase likelihood of repetition
Powerful - the more powerful the model, the more significant the effect is perceived to be

28. Practical application of Bandura’s model
In order to make demonstrations more effective, a teacher or coach should:
Make sure the learner is aware of the importance and relevance of the skill to the final performance
Refer to a high-status model
Show complex skills from various angles and at different speeds
Focus attention on a few points
Allow time for mental rehearsal
Repeat the demonstration if necessary
Reinforce successful performance