1. 11. IMAGE COMPRESSION 11.1. Introduction
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
11. IMAGE COMPRESSION
11.1. Introduction
11.2. Pixel level coding
PCM coding
Entropic coding
RL coding
Arithmetic coding
11.3. Predictive coding techniques
Principles of the predictive coding
Delta modulation
1-D DPCM
2-D DPCM
Comparison of the performances of various predictive coding methods
11.4. Transform-based image compression techniques
Bits allocation
Transform-based image compression
Zonal coding; threshold-based coding
Transform-based coding with visibility criteria
Adaptive transform-based coding
2-D DCT based image coding
Image compression algorithm based on DCT
11.5. Hybrid coding; vectorial DPCM based coding
11.6. Interframe coding
Principles of the inter-frame coding
Predictive coding with motion compensation
Motion estimation algorithms
Hybrid inter-frame coding

2. image storage in multimedia/image databases
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
INTRODUCTION
Def. Compression = minimization of the number of bits needed to represent the visual information in the scene, without noticeable loss of information
Applications:
image transmission
image storage in multimedia/image databases

3. text 2:1, Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
The need for image compression:
huge sizes of the data files, in uncompressed form
the storage devices have relatively slow access =>impossible to render/index image info in real time
limited bandwidth of the communication channels => impossible to do image transmission in real time
Memory needed for
storage before and
after compression
text 2:1,
color images 15:1,
maps 10:1,
stereo sound 6:1,
animation 50:1,
video 50:1.

4. Shannon => the average amount of information per symbol:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Shannon => the average amount of information per symbol:
L = number of symbols
=> It is possible to lossless encode the source having the entropy H by (H+e) bits/symbol, e>0, e->0.
The compression factor (ratio) C:
Maximal (ideal) compression can be achieved by vector quantization (theoretically). Practically – near optimal only:

5. 11.2.1. PCM (pulse code modulation)
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
PIXEL LEVEL CODING
PCM (pulse code modulation)
The minimal number of bits per pixel possible to be achieved by PCM:
Entropic coding (Huffman)
= coding one block of M pixels, M – small; without compression: B bits/pixel needed => MB bits/block
=> the source–has L=2MB symbols => any block can be encoded on less than MB bits, according to:
=> entropic coding principle: use a codebook with variable length code words, the length of the code word is different for each block as follows:
- the more frequent blocks (pi large) => have -log2pi smaller => shorter code word
- the less frequent blocks (pi small) => have -log2pi larger => longer code word
σ2u= the variance of the signal at the input
of the quantizer; σ2q= quantization error
= average bit rate

6. Symbol pi -log2(pi) Code Subtotal A 15/39 1.38 0 2*15
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Huffman coding algorithm:
Order decreasingly the probabilities pi , i=1,2,…,L, and write them in a list of symbols.
Chose from the list the last 2 elements (with the smallest probabilities, pk , pl) . From the 2 => create a node with the probability pk+pl => and insert it in the ordered list in the right position; erase pk, pl from the list
Asign the codes: 0 to k ; 1 to l
Repeat steps (1)…(3)
Symbol pi log2(pi) Code Subtotal
A / *15
B / *7
C / *6
D / *6
E / *5
Total: bits
Binary tree
H=87/39=2.23 bits per pixel in average

7. The received string: 1000100010101010110111 (22 bits) Decode!
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Decoding:
Simbol Code
A 0 B C D E
The received string: (22 bits)
Decode!

8. Versions of the Huffman coding: * the truncated Huffman code
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Versions of the Huffman coding:
* the truncated Huffman code
- first L1 symbols – Huffman encoded;
- the remaining L-L1 are encoded using a prefix code followed by a fixed length code
* the modified Huffman code
- the integer number “i” is represented as i=qL1+j
- encode first L1 symbols with a Huffman code
- if above L1 => encode q by a prefix code + use a terminator code = Huffman code of j
RLC (run length coding)
=> For binary images, 0 – white, 1- black; p(white)>>p(black); encode the length of the white run
=> applications: fax; sketches
p(white)=p(0)=p; p(black)=p(1)=q; p→1.
Notations:
M = maximum length of a run of zeros; M=2m-1 => m bits to encode the run

9. The average number of symbols/run:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
RLC - continued
The probability of appearance of a run of l symbols ‘0’, 0 ≤ l ≤ M, followed by a ‘1’:
The average number of symbols/run:
The compression ratio:
The average number of bits per pixel:
The coding efficiency: can be increased by the Huffman coding or by the arithmetic coding of the run lengths (instead of the uniform m bits encoding)

10. => A single codeword is used for an entire sequence of symbols
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
The arithmetic coding
=> A single codeword is used for an entire sequence of symbols
=> The code = a number in a sub-range of [0;1).
Source’s symbol Probability Initial sub-range
a , [0,00,2)
a , [0,2 0,4)
a , [0,4 0,8)
a , [0,8 1,0)
=> codeword:
Any number in
[0.0624;0.0688) ex
* Decoding: 1)  [0.0; 0.2) => a1; ( )/( )=0.34
=> 2) 0.34  [0.2; 0.4) => a2; ( )/( )=0.7

11. Arithmetic decoding - continued
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Arithmetic decoding - continued
=> 3) 0.7  [0.4; 0.8) => a3; ( )/( )=0.75
=> 4) 0.75  [0.4; 0.8) => a3; ( )/( )=0.875
=> 4)  [0.8; 1) => a4
=> The decoded sequence: a1 a2 a3 a3 a4
* Drawbacks of the arithmetic coding:
- limited by the representation precision for long sequences
- an end-of-message flag is needed
* Alternative solutions: re-normalization and rounding
Bits planes encoding
=> e.g. 8 planes of 1 bit, independently encoded (MSB …. LSB)
=> disadvantage: sensitive to errors

12. 11.3.1. DPCM coding principles
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
PREDICTIVE CODING
DPCM coding principles
= Maximize image compression efficiency by exploiting the spatial redundancy present in an image!
Line-by-line
difference of
the luminance
Many close to zero data => spatial redundancy, the brightness
is almost repeating from a point to the next one! => no need to
encode all brightness info, only the new one!
see images: one can “estimate” ( “predict”) the brightness of the subsequent spatial point
based on the brightness of the previous (one or more) spatial points = PREDICTIVE CODING

13. => currently to do: predictive encode u(n), n-current sample:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
PREDICTIVE CODING
DPCM coding principles – continued – BASIC FORMULATION OF DPCM:
Let {u(m)} – the image pixels, represented on a line by line basis, as a vector.
Consider we already encoded u(0), u(1),…, u(n-1); then at the decoder => only available their decoded versions ( original + coding error), denoted: u•(0), u•(1),…, u•(n-1)
=> currently to do: predictive encode u(n), n-current sample:
(1) estimate (predict) the grey level of the nth sample based on the knowledge of the previously encoded neighbor pixels u•(0), u•(1),…, u•(n-1):
(2) compute the prediction error:
(3) quantize the prediction error e(n) and keep the quantized e•(n); encode e•(n) PCM and transmit it.
At the decoder: 1) decode e => get e•(n) + 2) build prediction ) construct u•(n):
* The encoding & decoding error:

14. 11. 3. PREDICTIVE CODING - continued
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
PREDICTIVE CODING - continued
Basic DPCM codec
DPCM codec: (a) with distorsions; (b) without distorsions

15. => alternatively, one can predict the value of the sample as:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Delta modulation
=> the simplest DPCM encoder; prediction from 1 sample, 1 bit quantizer.
=> alternatively, one can predict the value of the sample as:
with:
 (n)= zero-mean error;
 - factor which minimizes the mean square error (leak factor); given by the error covariance equation:
=> SNR can be estimated as:

16. Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression

17. Delta modulation result for images: q=6,5;  =1
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Delta modulation result for images: q=6,5;  =1
Original
Compressed
(compression rate 8:1)

18. 11.3.2. 1-D DPCM (line-by-line DPCM)
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
D DPCM (line-by-line DPCM)
=> is the usual version of applying DPCM on digital images. The sequence to encode = one image line; consider the sequence {u(n)} stationary => one can use a p order linear predictor:
where a(k) are chosen to minimize:
**The equations of 1-D DPCM codec:
(1) Predictor:
(2) Quantizer’s input:
(3) Quantizer’s output: e(n)
(4) Decoder:
=> Estimation of the SNR:
=> Average bit rate reduction vs. PCM:

19. 11.3.2. 1-D DPCM - Comparison to PCM; the effect of error propagation:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
D DPCM - Comparison to PCM; the effect of error propagation:
PCM 8 bits
PCM 3 bits
The error in 3 DPCM on 3 bits
DPCM 3 bits

20. 11.3.2. 1-D DPCM - Comparison to PCM; the effect of error propagation:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
D DPCM - Comparison to PCM; the effect of error propagation:

21. with a(k,l) chosen to minimize
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
D DPCM
=> prediction as a function of one neighbor on the same line and 3 neighbors on the previous line:
with a(k,l) chosen to minimize
r(1,0) a1r(0,0) a2r(1,-1) a3r(0,1) a4r(0,1)
r(0,1) a1r(1,-1) a2r(0,0) a3r(1,0)a4r(1,-2)
r(1,1) a1r(0,1) a2r(1,0) a3r(0,0) a4r(0,2)
r(1,-1) a1r(0,1) a2r(1,-2) a3r(0,2) a4r(0,0)
 2  E2(m,n)  r(0,0) - a1r(1,0) - a2r(0,1) - a3r(1,1) - a4r(1,-1)
r(k,l) = covariance of u(m,n). If r(k,l) is separable =>:

22. ** Comparison of the performances of the predictive coding methods:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
D DPCM - continued
**Equations of 2-D DPCM:
(1) Predictor:
(2) Quantizer’s input:
(3) Quantizer’s output: e(n)
(4) Decoder:
** Comparison of the performances of the predictive coding methods:

23. 11.4. TRANSFORM-BASED IMAGE COMPRESSION ( “block quantization”)
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
11.4. TRANSFORM-BASED IMAGE COMPRESSION
( “block quantization”)
The essence of transform-based image compresssion:
(1) an image block is transformed using a unitary transform, so that a large percent from the energy of the block is packed in a small number of transform coefficients
(2) the transform coefficients are independently quantized
The optimal transform-based encoder = the encoder which minimizes the mean square error of the decoded data, for a given number of bits  the Karhunen-Loeve based encoder.
Transform-based image coding algorithm:
u = a random vector, u[N×1], of zero mean; v=A∙u – a liniar transform of u, so that
v(k) – not correlated => they can be quantized independently => v’(k); u’=B∙v’ – inverse transform

25. 11.4.1. Main issues to be solved in transform-based image coding:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Main issues to be solved in transform-based image coding:
Finding the optimal transform matrices: A[N×N], B[N×N], able to minimize the mean square value of the distortion for a given number of bits, D:
Designing the optimal quantizers for v, to minimize D.
Approaches to solve these issues:
For a given quantizer and a forward transform matrix A, the optimal reconstruction matrix B is:
The optimal matrix A from the max. de-correlation p.o.v.= the KLT of u; the lines of A =the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix R of u. Then: B=A-1=A*T. Unfortunately KLT does not have a fast computation algorithm => is typically replaced in compression by: DCT; DST; DFT; Hadamard; Slant  good compromise between decorrelation performance & computational speed

26. Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Bits allocation:
The variance of v(k) is typically non-uniform => different number of bits needed on each coefficient for the same quantization error; v(k) → nk
The optimal design of the transform-based encoder: how to efficiently allocate the total available number of bits between the transform coefficients, so that D – minimized; for A – some unitary matrix, B=A-1=A*T:
where: σk2 = the variance of v(k); nk = the number of bits allocated for the quantization of v(k); f(nk) = the distortion rate of the quantizer, monotonic, f(0)=1; f(∞)=0.
The transformed-based encoder rate is: ; B= the average number of bits/sample
Bits allocation = finding the optimal nk, nk ≥ 0, which minimizes D for the average number of bits/sample B given.

27. (11.31) Bits allocation algorithm: (1) Define
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Bits allocation algorithm:
(1) Define
(2) Find θ = the root of the non-linear equation:
(11.30)
One encodes only the coefficients having σk2 > θ.
(3) The number of bits nk is:
(11.31)
=> The minimum mean distortion:
(11.32)
If instead of imposing B, one imposes D=d: (1) solve (11.32) => θ; (2) solve (11.31) => nk; (3) estimate B.

28. = iterative algorithm, j – the current iteration:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Practical (simplified) algorithm to allocate the bits for nk - integer:
= iterative algorithm, j – the current iteration:
(1) At the beginning of the iterations, set:
(2) Compute:
(3) If => stop the algorithm. Otherwise repeat (2).

29. 11.4.3. Transform-based image compression steps:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Transform-based image compression steps:
The image = U[M×N], U={u(m,n)}  vector u[MN×1] => A[MN×MN], B[MN×MN], v[MN×1]
In practice: use DCT, DST, DFT, Slant, Hadamard – fast algorithms
Practical implementation of the transform-based image compression:
(1) divide the image in small sized blocks: U[M×N] => I = MN/pq blocks Ui[p×q], i=0,1,…,I-1,
p<<M, q<<N
(2) transform + independently encode the blocks Ui[p×q].
=> Advantages: (a) memory efficient implementation of the transform, MN/pq times
(b) decrease the number of operations for computing the transform on the factor log2MN/log2pq times
Disadvantage: lower compression rate r.
Fig Compression rate when using a KLT-based compression scheme

30. Practical algorithm for transform-based image compression:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Practical algorithm for transform-based image compression:
* The steps of the algorithm:
(1) Divide the input image into blocks Ui, transform them 2-D to get Vi, i=0,..., I-1,
(2) Bit allocation:
Fig D transform image coding
Bit allocation for DCT for
16x16 pixels block

31. Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
(3) Quantizer design:
(4) Encode the quantizer’s output
(5) Decode & inverse quantization of the coefficients
– at the decoder:
=> One can compute: the mean distortion, the mean bit rate:

32. Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Zonal coding and threshold-based coding:
Zonal coding: according to the bit allocation matrix => transmit just Nt coeficients = coeficients of the transform with large variances => the zonal mask = mask with values 1 for the sent coefficients, 0 otherwise:
Threshold based coding: transmit only the coefficients having the amplitude above a threshold (regardless their variance); the set of the transmitted coefficients = I’t
= threshold-based mask

33. Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
Transformed-based coding with visibility criteria:
Fig Transform-based codec with visibility criteria (F – the unitary Fourier transform matrix)
Adaptive transform-based coding:
adapt the transform
adapt the bit allocation
adapt the quantization levels

34. Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
D DCT –based coding:
Fig The influence of the different DCT coefficients

35. Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
D DCT –based coding- continued:

36. DCT-based encoding algorithm:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
DCT-based encoding algorithm:

37. DCT-based encoding algorithm – continued:
Digital image processing Chapter 11. Image compression
DCT-based encoding algorithm – continued: