1. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 1 Chapter 7: International Organization: An Alternative Structure “Friendly counsel cuts off many foes.” —William Shakespeare, Henry VI Part I

2. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 2 An Overview of International Organizations Function: General or specialized Geographical: Global or regional Intergovernmental (IGOs) or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)

3. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 3 The Origins of IGOs Belief in a community of humankind Developmental stages: League of Nations United Nations Big-power peacekeeping: UN Security Council Pragmatic cooperation: Wide range of specialized agencies: Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine (1815) is the oldest

4. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 4 The Growth of IGOs Rapid growth in the number of all types of IGOs during the 20th century Qualitative growth as well Roles of IGOs are expanding and taking on new global issues and functions Example: International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMMARSAT)

5. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 5 Theories of IGO Growth Functionalism: “Bottom-up” evolutionary approach Begins with limited, pragmatic cooperation on narrow, nonpolitical issues that leads to broader and higher levels of cooperation later on Neofunctionalism: “Top-down” approach Need to establish independent and powerful IGOs to address current political issues

6. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 6 Reasons for Growth Increased international contact Increased global interdependence Expansion of transnational problems Failure of state-centered system to provide security Efforts of small states to gain strength through joint action Successful role models

7. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 7 Role of IGOs: Interactive Arena Interactive arena where nations pursue self-interest Disadvantages of using IGO as an interactive arena: IGO becomes focus of struggle and not forum for cooperation Reduced support for IGOs if they do not promote national interests and/or goals Advantages of use of IGO as an interactive arena: Intergovernmentalism Using IGO makes it politically easier to take action

8. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 8 Role of IGOs: Center of Cooperation Promote and facilitate cooperation on specific issues, often nonpolitical Seek to build trust and solve social and economic issues that transcend national borders Regime theory: A complex of IGOs, NGOs, norms of behavior, processes, and treaties that govern national and international actors Create settings for interaction and cooperation The Regime for the Oceans and Seas

9. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 9 Role of IGOs: Independent International Actor Permanent administrative IGO staff increases its authority and role Role of mediation and conciliation Organizational independence

10. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 10 Role of IGOs: Supranational Organization, continued Specialized supranational governance: World Trade Organization Regional government: European Union Task of overcoming nationalism and bringing heterogeneous peoples together easier than global government Allows for greater cultural diversity and political experimentation than global government

11. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 11 Role of IGOs: Supranational Organization, continued World government : Far-reaching alternative facing many criticisms concerning its adverse effects on national sovereignty, cultural diversity, and political experimentation, Concern about the ability of world government to preserve and extend democracy in countries around the world. Doubts about the problem-solving effectiveness and unprecedented concentration of power required to enforce international law and address world's daunting economic and social problems.

12. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 12 Role of IGOs: Supranational Organization, continued Issues for structuring a world or regional government Centralized, federal or confederal government Allocation of decision-making authority and power to different executive, legislative, and judicial institutions Democratic opting-out rights to member nations Uniform monetary policy, common currency, and consensus trade rules Preserving individual human rights and liberties in each nation through constitutional and judicial protections Admission criteria for new members

13. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 13 Regional IGOs: Focus on the European Union Expanding regional organization that has evolved through several stages and names Moving toward fuller economic and political integration But not without controversy—recent debate surrounding the EU constitution

14. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 14 The Origins and Evolution of the European Union Economic integration: European Economic Community (EEC) European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) European Community (EC)

15. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 15 The Origins and Evolution of the EU Political Integration: Maastricht Treaty Monetary integration-the EURO Common foreign and defense policy Coordination of policy on social issues such as crime, terrorism, and immigration Treaty of Amsterdam and Treaty of Nice: further political and economic integration Expanding membership

16. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 16 The Government of the EU: A Prototype Political leadership: Council of Ministers (Council of the European Union): Weighted votes, sets policy Bureaucracy: European Commission: Implements policy President of the Commission Oversight agencies Legislature: European Parliament Judiciary: Courts of Justice, First Instance, Auditors European Ombudsman

17. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 17 The Future of the European Union Duality about further integration; several determining and controversial factors Ratification of EU constitution Dutch and French rejection Questions about further expansion, state sovereignty, jobs, agricultural trade subsidies by individual nations, Britain's refusal to adopt common currency (the Euro), and immigration

18. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 18 Global IGOs: The United Nations Best known and most influential IGO Structure and rules are important for success and are consistently being challenged

19. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 19 Membership Issues Standards for admitting new members: The Palestinian question Kosovo/Serbia dispute Successor state status: USSR -> Russia Withdrawal, suspension, or expulsion: Nationalist China (Taiwan), South Africa during apartheid

20. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 20 Representative Bodies Usually some plenary representative body (UN General Assembly) Limited membership council (UN Security Council—only five permanent members) Highly criticized: Inaccurate reflection of power realities Geographic and demographic imbalance Inequitable and unlimited veto power Transparency and accountability of decisions Ineffective implementation of Security Council resolutions

21. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 21 Voting Formulas Majority vote: 1 state, 1 vote. UN General Assembly Weighted voting by population or wealth Negative voting: Unanimity requirement Veto power: UN Security Council

22. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 22 IGO Leadership Secretariat: Political and regional selection considerations Role: Activism versus restraint Cases of the UN secretary-generals: Dag Hammarskjold (1953–1961) Boutros Boutros-Ghali (1992–1996) Kofi Annan (1997–2006) Ban Ki-moon (2007-Present)

23. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 23 IGO Bureaucracy Size Restraints on selection of Secretariat staff Dominant powers make appointments Geographic and gender composition of staff

24. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 24 UN Administration Administrative reform: Staff and budget considerations and cutbacks Issues of gender equality Corruption (e.g., Iraq Oil for Food Program) Putting charges of maladministration in perspective: U.S. comparisons

25. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 25 Financing the United Nations: The Elements of the UN Budget Core budget Peacekeeping budget Voluntary contributions budget Severe and controversial budget problems Dependent on assessment with little power to raise support

26. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 26 UN Budget Crunch Growing cost of operations Size of bureaucracy Unwillingness of member-countries to pay dues U.S. debt cleared by Congress only recently Criticism of assessment scheme: eight countries pay 76% of costs

27. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 27 IGO Activities: Promoting International Peace and Security Creating norms against violence Providing a debate alternative Diplomatic intervention Inquiry, good offices, mediation, arbitration, and adjudication

28. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 28 IGO Activities, continued Sanctions: Diplomatic and economic (e.g., Iran and Sudan) Peacekeeping: Expanding role: from neutral buffers to military intervention to nation-building efforts (e.g., Lebanon, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo) Arms Control and Disarmament: International Atomic Energy Agency—promotes and monitors the nonproliferation of nuclear weapons (e.g., North Korea)

29. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 29 Social, Economic, Environmental, and Other Activities of IGOs Economic development Human rights The environment International law and norms The quality of human existence Independence

30. ©2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education 30 Evaluating IGOs and Their Future Standards: What are the ultimate goals? Has progress been made? What is possible? Do any alternatives exist?