LEARNING LEARNING:- Learning is a process of acquiring of new inputs in term of knowledge & understanding, some physical activity or a new behavior (including.

LEARNING LEARNING:- Learning is a process of acquiring of new inputs in term of knowledge & understanding, some physical activity or a new behavior (including attitudes & values). When this process is quick, learning is effective. Learning is not a process of collection of various inputs. Learning is characterized by the internalization of new inputs. New inputs are acquired from the outside environment. But these become a part of individual’s personality, lifestyle & psychological world. CONCEPT & NATURE OF LEARNING:- Learning is one of the most important psychological process which helps to tell about human behavior. If a manager wants to explain & predict behavior of his employees he needs to understand how people learn. It is based on knowledge, skills & experience. Learning means a process which helps to respond to a situation which may occur or may not occur. Learning is related with change in behavior which is based on experience.

FEATURE OF LEARNING:- Following are the features of learning:-
Learning helps to change the behavior, the change maybe good or bad from an organizational point of view. For e.g., bad habits like drinking & smoking. The change should be based on practice, experience & training. Any change in behavior due to maturity, any disease or physical damage does not become a part of learning. Practice or experience helps a lot in learning process. If practice or experience are not part of learning then we will not be able to judge a person’s behavior. For e.g., if a person is thinking of taking drugs, but has not actually used them & he finds out that a friend of his has died because of drugs he will never get involved with drugs. This experience has changed his behavior.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
TYPES OF LEARNING SOCIAL LEARNING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING COGNITIVE LEARNING TYPES OF LEARNING:- There are 4 types of learning. Namely:- CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:- It is a form of learning through association or behavior. It has limited value in the study of organizational behavior. Classical conditioning is passive. Like something happens & we react in a particular way. For e.g., if a person sees the boss smile & hears boss’s criticisms then he feels nervous. But after sometime if he still sees his boss smiling then again he feels nervous.

OPERHANT CONDITIONING:- It is called “Behavioral Modification”
OPERHANT CONDITIONING:- It is called “Behavioral Modification”. It is based on law of effect which helps to study the behavior. It tells about the behavior that produces effects. In an organization the behavior is dependent on situation. For e.g., employees work hard to achieve organizational objectives & are directly rewarded with bonuses or privileges, they will tend to repeat their efforts when new objectives are set. COGNITIVE LEARNING:- It is based upon experiments. For e.g., if a workers expectation is to earn money & rewards. The worker would learn to be more productive by building a healthy relationship with his supervisor & will always obey his directions & take his advice because the supervisor will have a lot of experience & the supervisor will always guide him to the right path & teach him how he could achieve monetary rewards for the efforts which he – worker has put in. SOCIAL LEARNING:- People acquire new behavior by observing others. Learning can also be gained by discipline & self control & an inner desire to acquire knowledge or skills irrespective of external rewards. Learning by observing others is also known as “Modeling”. For e.g., subordinates may observe their managers in term of their efforts & attitude & may try to learn from them. In this people acquire behavior by directly observing & imitating others. Many patterns of behavior are learned by watching the behavior of role models such as parents, teachers, grandparents, film stars etc.

CONSEQUENCES OF BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE STIMULUS EVENTS
REINFORCEMENT THEORY:- It is based on the use of operant conditioning by the management to motivate the workers. For e.g., parents reward their children for good behavior & punish them for bad behavior. In education teachers give rewards to the student in form of grades for various levels of performance. CONSEQUENCES OF BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE STIMULUS EVENTS BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE POSITIVE NEGATIVE NEW BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN REINFORCEMENT & BEHAVIOR

TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT:- Following are the 4 types of reinforcement:-
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT:- It is based on rewards like praise, higher pay, timely or weekly off etc. It depends on the behavior of an individual or person. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT:- It depends when an individual or person learns to escape from consequences. For e.g., people learn to drive carefully to avoid accidents. EXTRINSIC & INTRINSIC REINFORCEMENT:- Positive reinforcement is often broken into extrinsic or intrinsic rewards. An extrinsic rein forcer has no direct relationship with the behavior. It is artificial like payment of money to the employees for new ideas. Intrinsic rewards are natural consequences of behavior. They create a psychologically expected relationship to the behavior like using new skills, work performance & assuming more responsibility. Extrinsic & intrinsic rein forcers are closely related with motivation process. They are mostly used in learning areas like training & more complex or difficult areas like employee attitude.

4. PRIMARY & SECONDARY REINFORCEMENT:- Positive reinforcement is also classified as primary or unconditioned & secondary or conditioned. A primary rein forcer is a satisfying person who directly reduces his primary motivational needs. Such rein forcers are independent on their past experiences. Examples of primary rein forcers are food, sex, etc. which help to satisfy physiological needs. Whereas, secondary reinforcement depends on the individual & his past reinforcement history. For e.g., rein forcers like praise, recognition, advancement, etc.

PERSONALITY DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY:- When we describe people as quiet & passive or loud & aggressive or ambitious we describe about their personality. Personality is a set of traits & characteristics & habits which help to form an impression of an individual. The concept of personality is quite complex. Personality represents distinctive traits of an individual. It is an integrating & organizing agent between physiological & psychological facts of an individual. It is unique in nature. It results or tells about the action, behavior of a person. The term personality is used in several senses. When people say, “She has a good personality”, they probably refer to the person’s physical appearance. When someone says that X should have a more dynamic personality, what is meant is the desired behavior of X & so on. There is no agreement even amongst psychologists about the definition of “personality”. For Carl Rogers personality is an organized, consistent pattern of perception of the “I”, around which the individual interacts & has experiences. Psychologists have attempted to describe personality in terms of standard “traits “. Some have attempted to search for patterns to suggest “types” of personality. Personality is used in terms of influencing others through external appearance. Personality should include external appearance, behavior & inner awareness of self. Personality is a set of characteristics & tendencies that determine those commodities & differences in the behavior (thoughts, feelings & actions) of people that have continuity in time & that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social & biological pressures of the moment.

PERSONALITY THEORIES:- Personality theories are based on following 4 theories:-
PSYCHOANALTIC THEORY:- It is based on 3 analysis. Namely:- THE ID:- It tells about biological & instinctual needs. Instinct could be life instinct & death instinct. Life instinct are hunger, thirst, sex. As an individual matures, he learns to control the id. But, even then it remains active throughout life & an important source of thinking & behaving. THE EGO:- The ego is conscious & logical part of the human personality. While id represents the unconscious part, ego is conscious. Thus ego keeps a check on id. Out of the functioning of the id & ego many conflicting situations arise because id wants immediate pleasure while ego dictates denial or postponement to a more appropriate time & place. In order to resolve the conflict the ego gets support from the super ego. THE SUPER EGO:- The super ego tells about social & personal norms & serves as an ethical constraint on behavior. The super ego provides norms to ego to determine what is wrong or right. However, a person is not aware of the working of the super ego & conscience is developed by absorption of cultural values & norms of the society.

2. SOCIO – PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY:- This helps to recognize the interdependence of the individual & society. The individual tries to meet the needs of the society, while the society helps the individual to achieve his goals. Out of this interaction the personality of an individual is determined. 3. TRAIT THEORY:- Trait factor theory represents a quantitative approach to study personality. This theory helps to tell about the individual’s personality & traits. Trait helps to distinguish or separate one individual from another. There are some common traits which are used for comparing people are religion, social, economic etc. Trait theory gives recognition to an individual’s personality. This theory is based on personality research. In this research helps to find relationship between set of personality & behavior. 4. SELF THEORY:- Self theory is also called “Organismic or Field Theory”. There are 4 factors in self concept. Namely:- SELF – IMAGE:- Self – image is a way which helps one to see oneself. Every person has certain beliefs about who or what he/she is; these beliefs are a person’s self – image or identity. Identity is a life – long development of an individual & his society. It is first self – recognition like a baby’s earliest exchange of smiles, there is something of a self – realization coupled with a mutual recognition. IDEAL – SELF:- It means the way one would like to be. Ideal – self is different from self – image. Self – image indicates the reality of a person as perceived by

him, while ideal – self indicates the ideal position as perceived by him. There can be a gap between these two characteristics. LOOKING GLASS – SELF:- Looking glass – self is the perception of a person about how others are perceiving his qualities & characteristics. This is the perception of other’s. Perception is the way one thinks people perceive about him & not the way people actually see him. Looking glass- self is a social product which takes place because of face – to – face interaction with others from beginning of the life. This interaction is directed about how others see him as an individual. Thus beliefs about self are treated as reflection of other’s perception about the person. REAL – SELF:- Real – self is what one really is. The first 3 aspects of self – concept are the functions of individual perception & they maybe same or different as the real – self. An individual’s self – image is confirmed when other person’s responses to him indicate their beliefs about who & what he corresponds with. In the face of feedback from the environment , the person re – evaluates himself & readjusts his self – image to be more consistent with the cues he was receiving. Thus, there is a mutual recognition of his real – self & the validity of his self – image is confirmed.

DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
Personality represents a process of change & it relates to psychological growth & development of individuals. It is necessary to study the factors which help to change & develop personality. Managers can deal more effectively if they understand how an individual’s personality develops. Analysis of personality change & development is done in 4 ways. Namely:- BIOLOGICAL FACTORS:- It is based on the study of 3 main categories. Namely:- HEREDITY:- Heredity means the qualities that one receives from his or her ancestors. It also means transmission of qualities from ancestors to descendants. Heredity can be in terms of physical, mental & emotional. Heredity plays an important role in personality. It can be physical structure, facial attractiveness, sex, temper, muscle composition, reflexes etc are inherited from one’s parents. However, the importance of heredity varies from person to person. For e.g., heredity is generally more important in determining a person’s temperament than values & ideas. BRAINS:- Another biological factor that influences personality is the role of brain of an individual. Brain helps to shape & develop the personality of an individual.

PHYSICAL FEATURES:- Formation of physical characteristics & rate of maturity helps in developing personality. An individual’s external appearance plays an important part in personality development. Personality refers to physical features of a person. A person’s physical features have influence on his/her personality because he/she will effect influence on the others & in turn will affect his/her self – concept. FAMILY & SOCIAL FACTORS:- Family members & social groups play a very important part in developing a person’s personality. A child likes to behave like his/her father or mother. It is effected by 3 factors. Namely:- HOME ENVIRONMENT:- Home environment plays a very critical part in developing a person’s personality. For e.g., children are bought up by their parents in a warm & loving environment. FAMILY MEMBERS:- Parents & other family members have a great influence in the personality development of the child. Parents have more effect on the personality development as compared to the other members of the family. Parents, brothers & sisters also contribute to personality. SOCIAL GROUPS:- Person’s home environment & family members are other influences arising from the social placement of the family as the person is exposed outside the home like school, friends & colleagues. Socio- economic factors also affect personality development.

CULTURAL FACTORS:- Culture helps a human being in decision – making
CULTURAL FACTORS:- Culture helps a human being in decision – making. It tells about attitudes like independence, aggression, competition & co-operation. Each culture expects & trains its members to behave in the way that are acceptable to the group. A child’s cultural group tells about the range of experiences & situation he is likely to encounter & the values & personality characteristics that will be reinforced & learned. Workers are not influenced by the same culture as managers are. SITUATIONAL FACTORS:- Situation plays an important part in developing an individual’s personality. For e.g., a worker whose personality history suggests that he had need for power & achievement may become frustrated & react aggressively if he is put in a bureaucratized work situation. Thus he may appear lazy & trouble – maker though his personality history may suggest that he is very hard working. Just because of changed situation his personality changes. This aspect is very important for organizational behavior because a manager has control over the organizational situation.

INDIVIDUAL PERSONALITY DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS FAMILY & GROUP FACTORS SITUATIONAL FACTORS INDIVIDUAL PERSONALITY CULTURAL FACTORS DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY

PERSONALITY & PERFORMANCE:- Following factors tell about personality & performance:-
Measures of dependence, self – confidence & happiness were positively associated with successful sales performance. Personality variables were associated with occupational adjustments. Extrovert ness is linked with negative job satisfaction. Successful executives had high frustration tolerance, understanding of competition ability to express hostility tactfully, ability to accept victory or defeat without too much emotions, etc. Successful executives had higher scores in achievement needs & power needs. The high positive association between personality traits & performance suggests that managers can take suitable actions to make proper adjustment between personality & work so that the workers may produce good results.

TRAITS OF PERSONALITY:- A personality trait can be defined as “an attribute of a person that appears constantly in a variety of situations”. The trait theory is based on following assumptions:- Traits helps to distinguish one personality from another. Individuals can be described in terms of construction of traits such as achievements. Traits can be quantifiable & do not defy measurements. The amount of each trait that a person has is assumed to be stable fairly & the differences in personality & behavior between two individuals is assumed to be the result of differences in the amount of each trait each person has.

PERSONALITY TRAITS INFLUENCING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR:- Following are the personality traits that influences organizational behavior:- AUTHORIANS:- A person with authoring personality has a strong belief in the legitimacy of established mechanisms of formal authority, views, obedience to authority as necessary, exhibits a negative philosophy of people, adheres to conventional & traditional values systems is intellectually rigid & opposes the use of subjective feelings. TYPE A & TYPE B PERSONALITY:- People who are impatient, aggressive & highly competitive come under “Type A Personality”. Those who are easy going & non – competitive come under “Type B Personality”. Type A people are productive as they work very hard. Their negative side is that they are impatient, more irritable & have poor judgments. Type B people do better on complex tasks involving judgments & accuracy rather than speed & hard work. Type A’s work under continuous time pressure, enjoy working against deadlines, in fact & create deadlines for themselves. Type B’s are relaxed & enjoy leisure.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TYPE A & TYPE B PERSONALITY
1. Are impatient with the rate of Never feel urgency & are patient. work. 2. Move & eat rapidly or fast Are relaxed, eat in a leisurely fashion & enjoy themselves. 3. Want to measure everything Do not display their achievements. 4. Do several things Play fun rather than to prove themselves. simultaneously or together. INTROVERT & EXTROVERT:- Extroverts are those individuals who mix around with everyone easily. Introverts are those individuals who are shy, quiet & do not mix around with everyone easily. Extroverts are more suitable for positions that require interaction with others whereas, introverts are more inclined to excel at tasks that require thought & analytical skills. Managerial positions are dominated by none other than extroverts.

SELF – CONCEPT & SELF – ESTEEM:- Self – concept is the way individuals define themselves as to who they are & derive their sense of identity. Self – esteem tells about the extent to which the individuals consider themselves as capable, successful, important & worthy individuals. LOCUS OF CONTROL:- It means whether the people believe that they are in control of events or events control them. Those who have internal locus of control believe that they can control & shape the course of events in their lives. Those who have external locus of control believe that events occur purely by chance or because of factors beyond their own control. Former category – internal locus of control people seek opportunities for advancement, & rely more on their abilities & judgment at work; while latter category – external locus of control people remain mostly inactive & allow the events occur their own.

ORGANIZATIONAL APPLICANTIONS OF PERSONALITY:- Following are the organizational applicants of personality:- MATCHING JOBS & INDIVIDUALS:- Every job in the organizations needs some specific characteristics of the job performer & one of the basic characteristics is personality of the job performer. An organization can do well if it is able to match the jobs & individuals – the personality of the job performer matches with the requirement of the job. Starting point in matching jobs & individuals is recruitment & selection. It is known fact that every organization uses some sort of personality test either in written form or through personal interview. The basic idea behind such an exercise is to discover the personality traits of the job seekers so that a match is established between jobs & job seekers. Another area which helps in matching jobs & individuals is training & development. Since people move upward in the organization, the nature of their job changes which needs a realignment between the job & job performer. The new personality traits can be developed through training. The third dimension of matching jobs & individuals is promotion where personality counts a lot.

DESIGNING MOTIVATION SYSTEM:- All people cannot be motivated by offering the same incentives because of their personality differences. Some people maybe motivated by offering financial incentives; some people may not react so favorably to such offers. They may attach more importance to non – financial incentives. Thus, a motivation system which takes into account the personality variables of the people in the organization is likely to be more suitable. DESIGNING CONTROL SYSTEM:- In order to ensure that people contribute in the organization in desired way, a control system is developed. Such a system maybe in the form of tight control leaving no discretion to the people or may provide flexibility. Based on personality variables, different people react differently to a particular type of control system. Thus, the designing of control system must take into account the personality variables of the people. Examples of three companies – Reliance Industries Limited, Hindustan Lever Limited & Infosys Technologies Limited to show how these companies emphasize on the recruitment of different types of people based on personality variables.

MOTIVATION MEANING & CONCEPT OF MOTIVATION:- Motivation as a general term means an individual’s involvement in work. In a specific sense, it means a particular motivation. The second concept of motivation is an explanation of the general term “work motivation”. An individual has either high or low motivation, or has one or another kind of motivation. Various terms like motives, needs, wants, desires, wishes, incentives define motivation. A motive is an inner state that activates or moves (hence motivation), & that directs behavior towards goals. We can differentiate between needs & wants. Needs are more comprehensive & include desires – both physiological & psychological wants are expressed in a narrow way & include only those desires for which a person has money & also the desire to spend the money to satisfy the wants. Motivation is the complex force starting & keeping a person at work in an organization. Motivation is something that moves the person to action & continues him in the course of action already initiated. Motivation refers to desires, aspirations, needs direct, control or explain the behavior of human beings.

NATURE OF MOTIVATION:- Following characteristics help to explain the nature of motivation:-
BASED ON MOTIVES:- Motivation is based on individual’s motives which are internal. These motives are in the form of feelings that the individual lacks. In order to overcome this feeling of lack ness he tries to behave in a manner which helps in overcoming this feeling. AFFECTED BY MOTIVATION:- Motivation is affected by way the individual is motivated. The act of motivating needs satisfaction. Besides it can also activate the needs in the individual. The needs that are less strong & somewhat dormant & harness them in a manner that would be functional for the organization. GOAL – DIRECTED BEHAVIOR:- Motivation leads to goal – directed behavior. A goal – directed behavior is one which satisfies the causes for which behavior takes place. Motivation influences human behavior; in the organization it harnesses human energy to organizational requirements. RELATED TO SATISFACTION:- Motivation is related to satisfaction. Satisfaction refers to contentment experiences of an individual which he derives out of need fulfillment. Thus, satisfaction is a consequence of rewards & punishments associated with past experiences. It provides means to analyze outcomes already experienced by the individual.

PERSON MOTIVATED IN TOTALITY:- A person is motivated in totality & not in parts. Each individual in the organization is a self – contained unit & his needs are interrelated. These affect his behavior in different ways. Moreover, feeling of needs & their satisfaction is a continuous process. As such, these create continuity in behavior. TYPES OF NEEDS:- There are many needs which an individual has. Basically there are 3 types of needs. Namely:- PRIMARY NEEDS:- Primary needs are also called “Physiological, biological, basic or unlearned needs”. Primary needs are main needs which are mainly used for survival. These needs are common in all human beings though their intensity may differ. Some of the needs required for survival are like food, sex, sleep, air to breathe, satisfactory temperature, etc. These needs are important for survival. These needs are also unconditioned by social practices. According to an economic man these needs are the only wants of a human being & he attempts to satisfy them only. Human behavior shows that psychological needs are equally important for human beings. SECONDARY NEEDS:- Secondary needs are not natural but are leaned by the individual through his experience & interaction. These needs are called “Learned or Derived Needs”. This is the reason why we find differences among the needs of a child & of a matured individual. There different types of secondary needs like need for power, achievement, status, affiliation, etc.

3. GENERAL NEEDS:- There are many needs that lie between primary & secondary needs are known as “General Needs”. A need must be learned but at the same time it is not completely physiological. In fact there are certain such needs like need for competence, curiosity, manipulation, affection, etc. TYPES OF NEEDS PRIMARY NEEDS SECONDARY NEEDS GENERAL NEEDS 1. FOOD POWER COMPETENCE. 2. SEX ACHIEVEMENT CURIOSITY. 3. SLEEP STATUS MANIPULATION. 4. AIR TO BREATHE AFFILIATION AFFECTION. 5. SATISFACTORY TEMPERATURE. MOTIVATION & BEHAVIOR:- Motivation causes goal – directed behavior. Need acts as a base for motivation which is a kind of mental feeling in an individual that he needs something. This lack of something creates tension in the mind of the individual. Individual tries to overcome this tension by

GOAL – DIRECTED BEHAVIOR
engaging himself in a behavior through which he satisfies his needs. Goal – directed behavior leads to goal – fulfillment & the individual succeeds in fulfilling his needs & overcoming his tension. Behavior ends the moment tension is released. Satisfaction of one need leads to the feeling of another need. Goal – directed behavior is a ongoing process. GOAL FULFILLMENT OR NEED SATISFACTION GOAL-DIRECTED BEHAVIOR NEED TENSION FAVOURABLE ENVIRONMENT GOAL – DIRECTED BEHAVIOR DEFENCE MECHANISM:- Frustration leads to defence mechanisms used in human organism. Defence mechanism is a type of action that helps to overcome frustration due to non – fulfillment of needs so that the individual can protect his self – concept. Following are the 3 types of defence mechanism:- AGGRESSION:- A common reaction to frustration is aggression. It is an act against someone or something. An employee not given due promotion may

become aggressive & berate his superior
become aggressive & berate his superior. Following are the types of aggression:- DISPLACEMENT:- Aggression can be due to frustration caused by superior in an organization or anyone else. Displaced aggression maybe towards a person. For e.g., frustrated employee if not able to abuse his superior causing frustration may attack his wife or his children. If this is not possible then he may kick objects like door, etc. NEGATIVISM:- It is an act of active or passive resistance operating consciously or unconsciously. For e.g., the manager who has been unsuccessful in getting out of committee assignments, takes every suggestion that anyone makes to him in the meetings. FIXATION:- In fixation, frustrated individual maintains a persistent non – adjustive reaction even though all the clues indicate that the behavior will not cope with the problems. For e.g., following of lengthy uneconomic procedures in doing a work or task. WITHDRAWAL:- Another way of overcoming frustration is to withdraw from the scene causing frustration, anxiety or conflict, either physically or psychologically. Following are the types of withdrawal:- FANTASY:- It is an act of day – dreaming or an imaginative activity which provides an escape from reality & imagined satisfaction.

REGRESSION:- In regression, the individual returns to an earlier & less mature level of adjustment in the face of frustration. For e.g., a manager having been blocked in some administrative pursuit busies himself with activities which are more appropriate for his subordinates. REPRESSION:- Repression is the act of completely excluding from consciousness impulses, experiences & feelings which are psychologically disturbing because they arouse a sense of guilt or anxiety. For e.g., being a subordinate forgetting to tell his superior the circumstances of an embarrassing situation. FLIGHT:- A more extreme form of withdrawal maybe to leave physically the field causing frustration. For e.g., an employee may leave the job which is frustrating. COMPROMISE:- When the frustration cannot be reduced by aggression or withdrawal, the individual tries to compromise with the situation a relatively satisfactory adjustment. Following are the types of compromise:- IDENTIFICATION:- It is the process through which a person takes on the attributes of the model. Individual enhances his self – esteem by patterning his own behavior after another’s. PROJECTION:- Individual projects himself from awareness of his own undesirable traits or unacceptable feelings by attributing them to others.

RATIONALIZATION:- Individual tries to justify inconsistent or undesirable behavior, beliefs, statements & motivations by providing acceptable explanations for them. REACTION - FORMATION:- It tells about not acceptable to consciousness are repressed & in their stead, opposite attitudes or modes of behavior are expressed with considerable force. MOTIVATION & PERFORMANCE:- Motivation is very important for performance. Performance of an individual working in an organization depends on other factors too besides his level of motivation. Performance of an individual working in an organization is affected by:- Motivation of the individual. His sense of competence. His abilities. His role perception. Organizational resources. Reward as a result of individual’s performance affects the level of motivation. If the reward is perceived to be of valence & equitable this energies the individual for still better performance & this process goes on. Thus motivation

will lead to higher performance by an individual’s:-
Efforts for higher performance. Lower rate of absenteeism. Loyalty & stability with the organization. Adaptation to organizational change. MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY:-One of the most popular models of motivation is of Maslow’s. He considered several needs to explain human behavior & proposed that these needs have a hierarchy – some needs are in lower order needs as compared to other higher order needs. He mentioned that unless the need at the lower level is satisfied, the higher order need will no longer motivate the person. Maslow proposed 5 main hierarchical levels of need. Namely:- PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS:- It contains of hunger, thirst, etc., symbolized by the need for wages & salary in the modern world are the lowest needs in the hierarchy. SAFETY NEEDS:- It comes after physiological needs. These would include security of all kinds. LOVE NEEDS:- It is the need to relate closely to others are after safety needs.

4. EGO NEEDS:- It is the need for status & recognition
4. EGO NEEDS:- It is the need for status & recognition. It is the highest order of needs are those of self – actualization or achieving one’s potential. Applied to work organizations then the lowest order need would be that for a salary. Security needs would include seniority & security in the job. Love needs would include the need to belong to a friendly work – group. The ego (or esteem) needs would be the needs for status & promotion. The highest is the need for self – actualization, which is the need for achievement of things which deals with one’s self – image. Maslow’s theory has made a very valuable contribution in drawing attention to the lower order needs, which maybe neglected in some organizations. Yet if these needs are not satisfied, the higher order needs may not be operative. The limitation of this theory, however lies in that in no organization do the higher order needs await the satisfaction of the lower order needs. All the needs operate simultaneously. SELF - ACTUALIZATION EGO NEEDS LOVE NEEDS PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS

JOB SATISFACTION & MOTIVATION:- Job satisfaction & motivation was discovered by Herzberg whose theory of work motivation is most widely known, used & discussed. His theory is called “Two – Factor Theory Of Motivation”. He collected data of people’s satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their jobs. The analysis of this data led him to propose 2 sets of needs: one set of needs caused dissatisfaction if they were not met; the other set provided positive satisfaction to people if they were met. His experience in the field of health helped him to propose his two – factor theory. He classified the various needs he found into terms of what he called”Hygiene Factors” (factors which may prevent dissatisfaction) & motivators (factors which may provide satisfaction). According to Herzberg preventing or reducing dissatisfaction in the work situation is not the same as providing positive satisfaction. These two are qualitatively different aspects of work motivation. According to him, motivation can be provided only if motivators are used in the work situation in addition to hygiene factors. Herzberg’s theory of work motivation has, however, led to “Job Enrichment” programs, entailing redesigning of jobs. Job enrichment attempts to build as many motivators into the job as possible.

HERZBERG’S TWO – FACTOR MODEL OF WORK MOTIVATION
HYGIENE FACTORS MOTIVATORS 1. SALARY ADVANCEMENT. 2. WORKING CONDITIONS DEVELOPMENT. 3. COMPANY POLICY RESPONSIBILITY. 4. SUPERVISION RECOGNITION. 5. WORK – GROUP ACHIEVEMENT. 6. WORK – ITSELF.

MOTIVES IN OB:- We have 6 main needs or motives. Namely:-
THE ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE:- It deals with concern for excellence, a tendency to compete with standards of excellence set by others or by the self, the setting of challenging goals for oneself an awareness of the hurdles in the way of achieving one’s goals & persistence in trying out alternative paths to one’s goal. THE AFFLIATION MOTIVE:- This deals with concern for establishing & maintaining close personal relationships, considerable value for friendship & a tendency to express one’s emotions. THE INFLUENCE MOTIVE:- It deals with concern for making an impact on others, a desire to make people do what one thinks is right, & an urge to change matters & develop people. THE CONTROL MOTIVE:- It deals with concern for orderliness, a desire to stay informed & an urge to monitor a situation & take correct action if needed. THE EXTENSION MOTIVE:- This deals with concern for others, an interest in the goal & a need to be relevant & useful for larger groups, including society as a whole.

THE DEPENDENCY MOTIVE:- This deals with concern for self – development with others help, checking ideas or proposed action with significant others (those more knowledgeable or having higher status, experts, close associates), a need for approval & expectations of such an approval relationship. UNDERSTANDING NEEDS:- It is of 2 types. Namely:- INTRINSIC NEEDS:- Intrinsic needs is also called “Internal Needs”. It is derived from the internal source within an individual or task – individual’s interest or the nature of the job. EXTRINSIC NEEDS:- Extrinsic needs is also called “External Needs”, tangible & satisfied by others like money or salary. INCENTIVES:- Incentives is an external process that helps to activate need. It also helps to encourage work in an organization. When a motive is present in any person it becomes active when there is some incentive. Thus, incentive refers to individual & his needs which he is trying to satisfy. It is of 2 types. Namely:- FINANCIAL INCENTIVE:- Financial incentive is mostly used in organizations to motivate the employees to increase their productivity. It includes wages, salaries, bonus, insurance, medical allowance, housing facilities & retirement benefits. They are paid in terms of money. Money plays

an important role in motivation
an important role in motivation. Management mostly makes use of financial incentives to motivate workers. However, such incentives may not always prove to be motivating. In many cases, management may have to increase the financial incentives to keep the workers with the organization. This can be appreciated from the practice of making wages & salaries competitive. Money is a real motivating factor when the psychological needs of the workers like food, clothing & shelter are not satisfied. Money helps in satisfying the social needs of the workers to some extent because money is often recognized as a basis of status, respect & power. Money is also an important means of achieving a minimum standard of living although this minimum has the tendency to go up as people become more affluent. But it can’t be concluded that money loses its importance after a certain stage. People in higher positions, who get higher monetary rewards are not motivated by monetary benefits. They maybe motivated by money only if the increase in large enough to increase their standard of living & status in the society. But in cases of employees at the operative levels, money plays an important role in motivating them because their basic needs have not been completely fulfilled. To some people, non - financial rewards are more important. They motivated by money up to the stage they are struggling for physiological & security needs. 2. NON – FINANCIAL INCENTIVES:- Non – financial incentives cannot be measured in terms of money. It includes of status or ranking in the society, job

security, performance feedback, praise, opportunity of growth, participative & consultative management & career development plan. JOB ENRICHMENT:- Job enrichment is a motivational technique which emphasizes the need for challenging & interesting work. In order to enrich the job, management should take following measures:- Give more freedom to workers in deciding about work methods, pace sequence; etc. Increase responsibility. Encourage participation. Provide feedback to the workers. Make the workers understand how tasks contribute to a finished product of the enterprise.

JOB ENLARGEMENT:- Job enlargement is a strategy which is adopted by many managers. It focuses on enlarging jobs by adding tasks & responsibilities. It involves expansion scope & width of the job by means of horizontal loading of certain closely related operations. For e.g., a clerk in an office who is doing typing work only may also be assigned the tasks of drafting simple letters, sorting of incoming mails & filing of letters. This will reduce his boredom & make him satisfied with the job. His efficiency will also improve. It helps to improve quality standards, possibly, because the employee who checks his own work responds favorably to the opportunity to do so. Also job satisfaction is higher in large jobs.

PERCEPTION DEFINITION & MEANING OF PERCEPTION:- Perception is a process of interpreting what is happening around us. It includes all those processes by which an individual receives information about his environment – seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting & smelling. Perception basically refers to the manner in which a person experiences the world. It is the process by which people organize, interpret & experience ideas & use stimulus materials in the environment so they satisfy their needs. It can be defined as the process of receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking & reacting to sensory stimuli or data. IMPORTANCE OF PERCEPTION:- Following are the importance of perception:- People working in an organization differ from each other in terms of physical characteristics like age, sex, background like training, education & personality traits like introvert & extrovert. Perception is an important tool for the manager who wants to avoid making errors when dealing with other people & events in the work place.

PERCEPTION PROCESS:- Following are the steps used perception process:-
INPUT:- Perceived inputs are the objects, events, people that are received by the receiver. MECHANISMS:- The perceived inputs are processed through the sub – process of selection, organization & interpretation. OUTPUTS:- Through the processing mechanism, the outputs are derived. These outputs maybe feelings, actions & attitude. BEHAVIOR:- It is dependent on the perceived output. The perceiver’s behavior in turn, generates responses from the perceived & these response give rise to a new set of inputs. PERCEPTUAL MECHANISM:- It takes place in the environment. It depends on 2 factors:- INTERNAL FACTORS:- It contains of following:- NEEDS & DESIRES:- Internal factors depend on the needs & desire of an individual.

PERSONALITY:- Individual personality is influenced on perceived behavior like:-
(i). Secure individuals tend to perceive others as warm, not cold. (ii). Individuals do not expose by expressing extreme judgments of others. (iii). Persons who accept themselves & have faith in their individuality perceive things favorably. (iv). Self – accepting individuals perceive themselves as liked, wanted & accepted by others. EXPERIENCE:- Experience & knowledge has great influence on perception. Successful experience & boost the perception ability & lead to accuracy in perception of a person whereas, failures erodes self – confidence. LEARNING:- Learning has influence on perception. It creates expectancy in people. People try to perceive what they want to perceive. EXTERNAL FACTORS:- Following are the external factors:- SIZE:- Size always attracts the attention because it establishes dominance. The size maybe the height or weight of an individual, sign board of a shop, or the space devoted to an advertisement in the newspaper. A very tall person will always stand out in the crowd; a very short person will also attract attention. A full page

advertisement in a newspaper will always catch attention as compared to a few lines in the classified section. INTENSITY:- Intensity attracts to increase the selective perception. A few examples of intensity are yelling or whispering, very bright colors, very bright or very dim lights. Intensity will also include behavioral intensity. If the office order says “Report to the boss immediately”, it will be more intense & effective as compared to the office order which says, “Make it convenient to meet the boss today”. FREQUENCY:- The stimulus which is repeated attracts greater attention as compared to a stimulus that is not repeated. It is because of this that supervisors make it a point to give the necessary directions again & again to the workers. Similarly, an advertisement shown again & again on the TV will have more attention as compared to an advertisement which is shown once a day. STATUS:- High status people can exert greater influence on the perception of the employees than the low status people. There will always be different reactions to the orders given by the foreman, the supervisor or the production manager. CONTRAST:- An object which contrasts with the surrounding environment is more likely to be noticed than the object which blends in the environment. For e.g., EXIT signs in the cinema halls which have red letters written on black background are attention drawing or a warning sign in a factory, such as

DANGER written in black on red or yellow background will be easily noticed.
MOVEMENT:- The principle of motion states that a moving object receives more attention than an object which is standing still. A moving car among the parked cars would catch our attention faster. A flashing neon – sign is more easily noticed. NOVELTY & FAMILARITY:- The principle states that new objects in the familiar settings or familiar objects in new settings will draw the attention of the perceiver. A familiar face on crowded railway platform will immediately catch attention. Due to this principle, the managers change the workers jobs from time to time, because it will increase attention they give to their jobs. PERCEPTUAL INTERPRETATION:- Interpretation is an important part of the perception process. Without interpretation selection & organization of information do make any sense. After the information or data has been received & organized, the perceiver would interpret or assign meaning of the information. In fact, perception takes place when the data have been interpreted. Several factors that contribute towards the interpretation of data. More important among them are perceptual set, attribution, stereotyping, halo effect, perceptual context, perceptual defense & projection. It may also be noticed that in the process of interpretation, people try to become judgmental. They may try to distort what they see & even ignore things that hey feel are unpleasant. Following are the various factors that contribute to this interpretation of perceptual process:-

THE PERCEPTUAL SET:- Previously held beliefs pertinent to the perception can influence individual perception. These general options or attitudes a person has, constitute the perception set. For e.g., a manager may have developed a general belief that workers are lazy, shirk work & want to get all the advantages from an organization without giving their best to it. In such a case, he or she already has a mental or perceptual set. His or her subsequent perceptions will be influenced by this set. When he or she meets a group of workers, this manager will try to interpret their behavior according to his mental set. Another manager having different beliefs, attitudes & opinions may have a different interpretation of the same phenomenon. STEREOTYPING:- When people form opinions about a particular class of objects or persons & act according to such opinions, it is called “Stereotyping”. The word “Stereotype” has been used to indicate a generally favorable or unfavorable opinion a person holds for a particular group of people. For e.g., managers perceive a manager as being more honest than a worker, just as a worker perceives another worker as being most honest than a manager. Stereotyping is necessary for economy of perception. But stereotypes also lead to prejudices about various groups of people, which influence perception & interpretation of data. THE HALO EFFECT:- The halo effect is similar to stereotyping. While in stereotyping the person forms an opinion or develops an attitude towards a

group of people or object in the halo effected the person develops an opinion or attitude towards a single person or object. If someone has a favorable attitude towards a person his or her subsequent perceptions of the same person are influenced by this attitude. For e.g., if a manager has a good impression about a particular subordinate (a positive halo effect), mistakes made by the latter maybe condoned or the interpretation may give the latter the benefit of doubt. When same mistake is made by another person about whom the manager has an unfavorable opinion (a negative halo effect), those mistakes maybe perceptually exaggerated as irresponsible behavior. Further, as a result of the halo effect, the manager may try to interpret even feedback information received according to the preconceived impression. For e.g., irrespective of the available information, the manager may try to overrate on person & underrate another. Our interpretation of data & partial data (about which very few cues are available), therefore, is influenced by already held impressions. 4. PERCEPTUAL DEFENSE:- Perceptual defense is used by the perceiver to deal with conflicting messages & data. If the data a person receives threaten beliefs already held, the recipient uses perceptual defense to deal with this phenomenon. For e.g., if a manager gets data from a union on strike, showing that it is taking positive steps in the direction of resolving conflicts or is doing something useful for the organization, the manager may find such data in conflict with a preconceived opinion that the union is by & large negative in its

approach. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERCEIVER:- Following are the characteristics of the perceiver:- NEEDS & MOTIVE:- A need is a feeling of discomfort or tension when one thinks he is missing something or requires something. Therefore, unsatisfied needs or motives stimulate individuals & may exert a strong influence on their perception. When people are not able to satisfy their needs they are engaged in wishful thinking which is a way to satisfy their needs not in real world but imaginary world. In such cases, people will perceive only those items which suit their wishful thinking. Motives also influence the perception of people. SELF – CONCEPT:- Self – concept shows how we perceive ourselves. This influences how we perceive others & the situation we are in. The more we understand ourselves, the more we are able to perceive others accurately. For e.g., secure people try to see others as warm & friendly. Less secure people often find fault with others. Perceiving oneself accurately & enhancing self – concept are the factors that enhance accurate perception. PAST EXPERIENCE:- Our perceptions are often guided by our past experiences. A person’s past experiences helps him to perceive the current situation. If a person has been betrayed by a couple of friends in the past, he would try to distrust any new friendship that he might be in the process of

developing. BELIEFS:- A person’s beliefs influence his perception to a great extent. Thus, a fact is conceived not on what a person believes it to be. The individual normally censors stimulus inputs to avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs. EXPECTATIONS:- Expectations affect the perception of a person. Expectations are related with the state of anticipation of particular behavior from a person. For e.g., a technical manager will expect that the non – technical people will be ignorant about technical features of the product. CULTURAL UPBRINGING:- A person’s ethics, values & beliefs play an important part in his perception about others. It is difficult to perceive the personality of a person bought up in another culture because our judgment is based upon our own values. Elements in the environment surrounding an individual like time, location, light, heat, etc influence his perception. The context in which a person sees the objects or events is very important. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PERCEIVED:- Characteristics of the person who is being observed can affect what is perceived. Though, it may go against logic & objectivity, but it cannot be denied that our perceptions about others are influenced by their physical characteristics such as appearance, age, gender, manner of communication as well as personality traits & other forms of

behavior. Manner of communication, both verbal & non – verbal, affect our perception about others. For e.g., the choice of words & precision of language can form impressions about the education of the person. The tone of voice indicates the mood of the person. The depth of conversation & choice of topics provides clues of people’s intelligence. The body language or expressive behavior such as how a person sits & the movement of his eyes or a smile can indicate whether he is nervous or self – confident. THE PROCESS OF CHECKING:- After data have been received & interpreted, the perceiver takes steps to check whether his or her interpretations are right or wrong. The process of checking maybe so fast that the person is not even aware of it. Such checking maybe done occasionally in order to confirm whether the interpretations or perceptions are reinforced by new data. Alternatively, data or impressions maybe checked by asking other people about their perceptions. This is by way of feedback about one’s own perception. For e.g., a manager who has perceived a certain characteristic in a subordinate on a few occasions may check with other managers who worked with that subordinate previously to find out whether this perception is endorsed by them. The manager may also use another method of checking which is more useful but difficult to adopt: He or she check certain things with the person in question directly. For e.g., if the manager finds an employee

disturbed or annoyed, instead of waiting for the employee to take the initiative in conveying his or her feelings, the manager may check with the employee whether the latter feels disturbed, or offended, or annoyed. By encouraging such feedback from the source of the communication itself, the perceiver may slowly increase the accuracy of his or her perceptions. THE PROCESS OF REACTING:- The last phase of the perceptual process is that of acting upon what has been perceived. This is usually when people do something in reaction to their perceptions. For e.g., a person may act on the basis of the favorable or unfavorable perceptions he or she has formed. The cycle of perception is not complete unless it leads to some action. The action maybe covert or overt. Covert action implies the formation of opinions or attitudes, & overt action is definite action in response to the perception. One phenomenon which has attracted attention with regard to convert action is “impression formation”. Impression formation refers to the way a perceiver forms an impression about an object or a person on the basis of characteristics he or she perceives or data he or she receives from various sources. A manager has to form impressions most of the time, being required to make quick judgments. While interviewing people, for e.g., a manager has to form a quick opinion of the interviewees to take a decision. The more accurate a manager is in forming a realistic impression, the more effective he or she is likely to be.

Following are the 4 limitations in the formation of accurate impressions:-
SURROUNDINGS:- An impression is likely to be affected by the type of situation or surroundings which the impression is made, rather than by the person who makes the impression. For e.g., if someone is seen in an undesirable surrounding, the impression formed about that person is likely to be low. Similarly, if sees another person in a posh environment frequented exclusively by people of high status, one’s impression of that person is likely to be more favorable, being based on the latter’s apparent affluence. GENERALIZATIONS:- Although impressions maybe based on limited cues or data, sweeping generalizations maybe made from the same. This usually happens when a person already has some stereotypes & mental sets. SITUATIONAL LIMITATIONS:- A situation may not provide adequate opportunity for a person to show the behaviors critical to the formation of a certain impression. For e.g., in an interview, the interviewee may not be able to show how much commitment he or she is capable of having towards goals. PRECONMCEIVED NOTIONS:- An impression maybe determined by the prejudices or individual reactions of the perceiver. The mental set, stereotypes & halo effect, in particular, may influence a person’s perception. In order to increase the accuracy of impression formation, it maybe useful to be aware of the various factors which influence interpretation of data. It may also be useful for a person to check from time to time the impressions he or she has formed & to reflect on the accuracy of these perceptions as well as question why accuracy maybe less than desired.

ANALYSING INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS:- Transactional analysis is a comprehensive conceptual framework to gain an understanding of personality styles & human behavior. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS:- Proposing the main structure of a personality in terms of 3 ego states. An ego state is defined as a pattern of feeling & experience directly related to a corresponding consistent pattern of behavior. Three ego states are: Parent, Adult & Child. Parent ego – state is a set of feelings, attitudes & behavior patterns which resemble those of the parental figure. The adult ego – state is an autonomous set of feelings, attitudes & behavior patterns which are adapted to the current reality. And the child ego – state is a set of feelings, attitudes & behavior patterns which are relics of the individual’s own childhood. The 3 ego states can be understood as 3 functions. There are 2 main parental functions – nurturing & controlling. Nurturing is done by providing support & controlling or regulating behavior is done through prescriptions (instructions in detail what should be done & how) & sanctions (punishing that behavior which the parent disapproves of). We may call this “Sub – ego states or Sub – functions”. The main focus of the parent seems to be on the values & norms. The adult ego – state has the function of collecting & processing information

in the present. It responds to reality the adult works like a computer, without any values or emotions. We can call this a “Task function”. The child ego – state has several aspects. These were named “Natural child (curious, fun – loving), Rebellious child (revolting against authority) & Adapted child (the ego – state under the influence of the parent)”. All these relate to emotions. We shall take the liberty of using different terms with slightly different meanings - creativity, confrontation & adaptation. All these 3 ego – states are important for a person. If one of them is weak, we call it “Under developed”. TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS:- A transaction is the act of communication or interaction between 2 people. A transaction starts with a stimulus & ends with a response to the stimulus. Since each individual involved in the transaction has 3 ego – states., the transactions are between the various ego – states. When A sends a message, B receives it; B then responds & this response is received by A. This one transaction. A person can send a prescriptive message (from what is called the “Parent ego – state”), an information message (from the Adult ego – state), or a feeling message (from the Child ego – state). Any of these messages maybe sent to (and received by) one of the 3 ego – state of the other person (parent, adult or child). If the response is by the same ego – state as the one which received the message, it is called a “Complementary or Parallel Transaction”. Such transactions are very satisfying.

The response, however, may not originate from the ego – state which has received the message. Then it is a “Crossed Transaction”. LIFE POSITION ANALYSIS:- It suggests 4 positions individuals adopt in their transaction with the outside world. Life position comprises certain deeply ingrained convictions about the worth of the self & others. By the time a child is ready for school, it arrives at these convictions. The child’s conviction about itself may either be “I’m OK” or “I’m not OK”. Similarly, it may look at others & think “You’re OK” or “You’re not OK”. Combining these, we have 4 life positions:- “I’m OK, you’re OK”. This is the healthy position. “I’m OK, you’re not OK”. This is the paranoid position. “I’m not OK, you’re OK”. This is the depressive position. “I’m not OK, you’re not OK”. This is the schizoid position or futility position. GENERAL TRANSACTIONAL STYLES IN THE 4 LIFE POSITIONS I’m not OK I’m OK You’re not OK You’re OK A AVOIDANT / ADVERSE B BOSSING C COMPETENT/CONFIDENT/ CREATIVE D DIFFIDENT

TRANSACTIONAL STYLES:- The 4 life positions are combined with the 3 ego states. All the 3 ego – states & their dimensions (sub – ego states) are important & perform distinct functions. Their effectiveness, however, depends to a large extent on the basic life position an individual take. Thus, combining the 4 life positions & 6 ego state dimensions. We get the 24 different transactional styles. Four life positions – avoidant, bossing, competent & diffident & 3 ego –states – parent, adult & child combine to form tenets for transactional styles, which are useful for understanding interpersonal styles. A FOR AVOIDANT (OR I’m NOT OK, You’re NOT OK):- In this life position, the person, the person has respect neither for himself or herself, nor for others. It seems meaningless to the person to do anything worthwhile. Following styles are:- TRADITIONAL (REGULATING PARENT):- The role of the regulating parent is to establish norms & regulations of behavior, disapprove of any deviation from the norms,& ensures that norms are followed. In the traditional style, a manager will have faith neither in himself or herself nor in subordinates with regard to proper behavior. The easiest way to deal with this person, therefore, would be to follow the rules & regulations & the procedures laid down. OVERINDULGENT (NURTURING PARENT):- The nurturing parent is interested in protecting & providing support to others. Not being sure how to

provide such support, nor trusting others to demand such support, the general style becomes overindulgent. A manager, a consultant or a trainer with this style may show more consideration towards others than necessary. SULKING (ADAPTIVE CHILD):- The adaptive child accepts the norms of others & enjoys approval & conformity. A manager, consultant or trainer of this style may adapt to a situation by keeping feelings of dissatisfaction private. This is a dysfunctional adaptation, growing out of a need for safety. WITHDRAWN (REACTIVE CHILD):- In this a child feels angry tends to show anger ( or aggressiveness) by withdrawal behavior. A manager may become disinterested & uninvolved; a consultant may break off the consulting relationship with a client; a trainer may lose interest in his or her profession. HUMOROUS (CREATIVE CHILD):- Humor may help to avoid the immediate problems, but this is different from genuine humor, which is used occasionally to enliven difficult situations. A manager, consultant or trainer in this style may try to show imaginativeness by using humor all the time, when then reduces the seriousness of a situation until it seems ludicrous. B IS FOR BOSSING (OR I’m OK , You’re NOT OK):- Generally a person in this life position takes a holier – than – thou attitude. This is reflected in an attitude of superiority. The various styles in this position are as follows:- PRESCRIPTIVE (REGULATING PARENT):- Such a manager has the opportunity to establish proper norms for subordinates & to ensure that these

are followed; a consultant indicates to clients what he or she thinks they should do & is unhappy when they do not act according to the instructions; a trainer regards his or her main role as one of laying down detailed rules & regulations for learners & ensuring that these are properly followed. Such people are also overcritical of others. PATRONIZING (NURTURING PARENT):- In this style nurturance & support are provided by almost imposing oneself on others. The manager provides support & make it obvious that he or she is doing the subordinate a favor as the latter is not capable of taking care of himself or herself. TASK – OBSESSIVE (ADULT):- The manager, consultant or trainer in this style is primarily concerned with tasks & is so obsessed with the work to be done that he or she overlooks various other things. In task – obsessive ness, the individual takes responsibility for completing the tasks himself or herself & involves others in secondary roles only. COMPLAINING (ADAPTATIVE CHILD):- This person tries to adapt & seeks safety, but feels that he or she does not have the situations he or deserves. This is reflected in complaining behavior. A manager finds fault with the organization & with other managers & employees. AGGRESSIVE (REACTIVE CHILD):- A person with this style is likely to show aggressiveness through infighting, making heavy demands, fighting, or

going back to the same issues & never allowing these to be settled
going back to the same issues & never allowing these to be settled. The result of all such behavior is that he or she gets alienated. People do not take such a person seriously for long. BOHEMIAN (CREATIVE CHILD):- Such a person does not seem able to sustain a single idea & is obsessed with finding new ideas all the time. He or she overwhelms subordinates, clients or colleagues with the new ideas he or she gets. C IS FOR COMPETENT (OR I’m OK, You’re OK):- People with this life position are creative, confident of themselves & competent. They have respect for themselves as well as for others. Following are the 6 styles:- NORMATIVE (REGULATING PARENT):- This manager, consultant or trainer is concerned with setting appropriate norms but involves subordinates, client or learners both in evolving these norms & in deciding how such norms will be followed. SUPPORTIVE (NURTURING PARENT):- A person with this style provides the necessary support needed by others with whom he or she interacts. Support is provided only if such support is either solicited or needed. PROBLEM – SOLVING (ADULT):- This person’s concern is to solve the problem by working himself or herself & involving others in it as well. This is different from being obsessed with the task. It is ironical that excessive concern with tasks may sometimes come in the way of a solution to a problem.

RESILIENT (ADAPTIVE CHILD):- This style is characterized by functional adaptation. The person assesses the situation & adapts to suit it. This is effective contingency behavior. A manager is quick to assess the situation & quicker to change his or her approach if needed. CONFRONTING (REACTIVE CHILD):- Aggressiveness is characteristic of this style. However, aggressiveness becomes functional when the person does not give up but perseveres & is content only when the problem is solved. This is confrontation of the problem. A distinction needs to be made between pseudo – confrontation (expression of aggression to people) & real confrontation (reflected in concern with the problem). Even when an issue has to be explored with a person, in effective confrontation the focus remains on the particular issue or problem & the other person is not a target. D FOR DIFFIDENT (OR I’m NOT OK, You’ re OK):- The general attitude in this style is to depreciate oneself. As the person does not have much trust in his or her own ability, he or she may not be assertive. This may be shown in various ways. Following are 6 styles:- INDIFFERENT (REGULATING PARENT):- A person with this style leaves following the norms to the discretion of others & does not care to see how well the norms are understood. Most of the time, such a person managers to overlook whether the norms are being followed. A manager may ignore the issue of the propriety of his or her subordinates behavior.

INGRATIATING (NURTURING PARENT):- In this style the effort is to try to please others. A manager may do certain things to keep subordinate in good humor, thinking that this will help him or her to get work done by them. OVERWHELMED (ADULT):- Such a person is always concerned with the task but remains confused & feels that he or she has too much work to do. He or she never gets out of this task – orientation & constantly feels overworked & overburdened. DEPENDENT (ADAPTIVE CHILD):- The need for safety maybe reflected in over dependence on others. A dependent manager may go blindly by what subordinates tell him or her to do or may seek approval for all actions from the boss. INTROPUNITIVE (REACTIVE CHILD):- A person with this style takes aggression on himself or herself. Such a person is angry with himself or herself for not doing certain things & blames his or her lack of ability, skills or courage for ineffectiveness. Intropunitive people suffer from self – pity. SATIRICL (CREATIVE CHILD):- This style takes a more pungent form. The person shows his or her critical attitude, but escapes confrontation by using satire. A person may show behaviors relating to several of the styles described above. However, he or she would use one style more frequently than others. We may thus get a style profile of a person in an interact ional or transactional role. We call this “The person’s transactional styles profile”. INNOVATIVE (CREATIVE CHILD):- A person with this style is not satisfied with the available solutions but continuously searches for new ways of solving a problem or new methods to be used. However, the person is also interested in stabilizing such an innovation before going on to new ones.

INDIVIDUAL DETERMINANTS OF OB
HUMAN BEHAVIOR:- An organization is an association of human beings. Behavior of human beings determines these efforts & contributions those responsible for managing the organizations must understand the way human behave. Individuals come to work in the organization & get integrated as per the roles they occupy in the organization. The roles require separate attention. Individuals do not work in isolation. For most tasks people work in teams. Enough attention needs to be given to the formation of teams, their dynamics & ways of making them more effective. Human behavior tells about the behavior of an individual like hard working, arrogant, etc. TYPES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR:- Following are 2 types of human behavior:- INTERNAL BEHAVIOR:- Internal behavior of a human deals with the inside the work environment like helpful. EXTERNAL BEHAVIOR:-External behavior of a human deals with outside the organization like socializing, family oriented. INTERNAL VS EXTERNAL DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR:- Environment plays an important role in shaping behavior & genetic endowment & personality development is influenced by historical heritage. PERSONALITY &ENVIRONMENT:- Both personality & situation must be

STIMULUS ORGANISM RESPONSE
taken to explain an individual’s behavior. But focus on the environment is very important because it helps in developing personality of an individual. MODELS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR:- The behavior of an individual is caused by a number of variables. To identify the major variables & to show how they relate to each other, for this following specific models have been developed:- THE S – R MODEL:- This model assumes that the reasons which cause human behavior are of 2 types:- INTERNAL FEELINGS. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT. Internal feelings of a person may relate to his motivational factor whereas, the external environment, which is also called the “Stimulus” directly influences the activity of a person. The stimulus maybe in form of heat, light, etc. The external environment forces determine the behavior of a person at any given moment. There is a direct relation between stimulus & response. That is why this process is called “S – R PROCESS”. S – R MODEL STIMULUS ORGANISM RESPONSE INPUT OUTPUT

FEEDBACK STIMULUS ORGANISM BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCES
2. S – O – B – C MODEL:-This model deals with human behavior which combines the S – R situation & human being. O in this model is not passive or immobile but it is a mediating, maintenance & adjustive function between S (stimulus) & C (consequence). S in this model stands for “Stimulus or External Environmental Situation”. It includes light, heat, sound, actions of supervisors or other aspects of environment to which a person is sensitive. O in this model stands for the “Organism or the Person”. But this O does not stand for only the physiological being but it also includes the processes within the person for e.g., heredity, maturity, knowledge, skills, values, perceptions, attitudes, personality & motivation. B stands for “Behavior”. It includes body movements, talking, facial expressions, emotions, sentiments & thinking. Behavior is anything that a person does, it is not something that is done to a person. C stands for “Consequences”. When behavior in turn acts on the outside world, it leads to accomplishments may further change the stimulating conditions & thereby influence the subsequent behavior or they may create new stimulus leading to new behavior. S – O – B – C MODEL STIMULUS ORGANISM BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCES FEEDBACK

ASSUMPTIONS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR:- Following are 4 assumptions of human behavior:-
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES:- Individual differences are important for industry as they affect the work performance of the employees. This can be identified & measured so as to ensure that right men are placed on right jobs in the industry & proper training can be arranged for each man. THE WHOLE PERSON:- In this we think of an individual, we think of his or her skills & brain together. It is not possible that the employer while employing an individual for skills may exclude his or her brain because both are inseparable. His or her skills are influenced by his or her background & knowledge. CAUSATION OF BEHAVIOR:- Human behavior is caused by his or her needs. A need first appears as a want in the sense that an individual feels the lack of something that causes him or her to be dissatisfied & restless. It then becomes his or her need & he or she seeks to fulfill it through certain actions & responses which forms his or her behavior. HUMAN DIGNITY:- Man is a very sensitive social animal. He can’t be treated like a machine. He has the mind to think & heart to feel. He has aspirations, emotions & sentiments which have to be respected. He has to be treated with dignity & respect & not like a log of wood which has no

sensitivity at all. DETERMINANTS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR:- Following factors affecting the behavior of individuals are :- BIOGRAPHICAL CHARACTERISTICS:- Following are biographical characteristics:- AGE:- The employee turnover among the older employees is very low as compared to the employees in their 20’s & 30’s. Absenteeism among the middle aged employees is less as compared to the young & old employees. GENDER:- It is believed that physical differences between males & females will affect their job performance where they are required to put hard physical labor. MARITAL STATUS:- Married employees show higher consistency in th behavior. Rates of absenteeism & labor turnover are lower among them. They are also found to be more satisfied with their jobs. 2. LEARNED CHARACTERISTICS:- Following are learned characteristics:- ATTITUDES:- An attitude represents the way an individual feels about anything – an idea, a person, place or situation. VALUES:- Values are at the core of one’s personality & are a powerful force

affecting behavior. Values are so embedded that they can be inferred from the people’s behavior & their expressed attitudes. What may appear to be a strange behavior of an employee may make sense if the manager understands the value underlying that behavior. PERCEPTION:- Perception is the view point by which one interprets a situation, for e.g., a booking clerk facing a well – dressed person perceives him to be a very fine passenger & talks to him nicely, whereas, he may try to ignore an ill – dressed person, or make him wait, though both the passengers may have been of similar status. MOTIVATION:- Motivation refers to all the forces operating within a person to cause him or her engage in certain kinds of behavior rather than others. Motivation maybe internal for e.g., a person’s skill, ability & intelligence or external incentives, training, etc. A person’s motivation is influenced by his or her attitudes, beliefs, values & goals. 3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:- Environmental factors consist of such variables as economic conditions, social & cultural norms which are outside an individual. Political factors also affect individual behavior. 4. ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS:- Following are organizational factors:- PHYSICAL FACILITIES:- The physical environment at the work place affect the behavior of people working there. Some of the factors which influence

individual behavior are noise level, heat, light, ventilation, cleanliness, nature of job, office furnishing, number of people working at a given place. LEADERSHIP:- The system of leadership is established by the management to provide direction, advice & coaching to individuals. The behavior of individuals is influenced to a large extent by the behavior of the supervisors or leaders. REWARD SYSTEM:- The behavior & performance of the individual also influenced by the reward system established by the organization to compensate & reward their employees. 5. TYPE OF PERSONALITY:- Personality refers to personal traits such as dominance, aggressiveness, persistence & other qualities reflected through a person’s behavior. An individual’s personality tells about the types of activities that he or she is suited for & whether the person will be able to perform the task effectively. Thus, personality factors must be taken into account in determining the suitability of an individual for a position in the organization.

LEADERSHIP STYLES MEANING & DEFINITION OF LEADERSHIP:- Leadership has long interested psychologists, sociologists, political scientists, & certainly management scientists. There is still a growing interest in leadership, which has been defined in different ways. Leadership can however be simply defined in defined as the act of making an impact on others in a desired direction. In this sense leadership is a boarder term than management. Managers can run organizations effectively, but only leaders can build them. Leadership, the act of making an impact on others in a desired direction, helps to build organizations through excellence, creativity, vision, building culture, mentoring & multiplying empowerment. Leadership is the process of influencing the behavior of others to work willingly & enthusiastically for achieving predetermined goals. Leadership is very essential for a successful organization. Successful organization has one major attribute that sets it apart from unsuccessful organization is dynamic & effective leadership. Leadership is essentially a continuous process of influencing behavior & supporting others to work enthusiastically towards achieving objectives.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MANAGEMENT & LEADERSHIP:- Leadership means the process of influencing the behavior of an individual or group. It maybe for one’s own goals or a friend’s goals & may or maybe for organization goals. A manager has to perform all the 5 functions of management – planning, organizing, staffing, directing & controlling. Leadership functions come under directing through which behavior is directed to get maximum use of subordinates ability. Subordinates are guided by rules & requirements enforced by managerial authority. In this process, the subordinates may work about 60 – 65 percent of their capacity, just enough to satisfy the requirements for holding their jobs. To raise efforts towards total capability, the managers must introduce zealous response on the part of efficient subordinates by exercising leadership. Thus, leadership is a part of management but not all of it. This implies that a strong leader can be a weak manager because he is weak in planning or some other managerial duty. The reverse is also possible. A manager can be weak leader & still be an acceptable manager, specially if he happens to be managing people who have strong inner achievement drives. INFORMAL & FORMAL LEADERS:- Leaders arise or take place in many situation. Even informal social groups have leader. When a group becomes formal the persons are elected leaders. The persons who are elected to offices are the ones who are the natural leaders of the groups. Their views get attention from the members even without formal election, but with elections, those natural leaders are consciously acknowledged. A leader derives his influence from the members

feeling or intuition that he can help to satisfy their needs; consequently, they are willing to submit, within the limits, to his guidance. When a person is an informal leader or someone else, is appointed in a superior capacity, the natural leadership relations change. Such change takes place in two respects. Firstly, when a person is appointed in superior capacity, he gets authority from the organization. This authority allows him to increase or decrease the satisfaction of his subordinates. Secondly, because of appointment, he has the obligation of achieving organizational objectives besides an obligation to provide satisfaction to his subordinates. An appointed or formal leader cannot rely upon the use of authority getting desired results from his subordinates. Subordinates sometimes put maximum effort under pressure. Regardless of these differences between formal & informal leaders, a leader is able to direct the actions of his followers because they believe he can provide rewards or prevent penalties that satisfy their needs. IMPROTANCE OF LEADERSHIP:- Leadership is an important tool for making any kind of organization successful. We consider a manager as a leader. Without a good leader, an organization cannot function efficiently & effectively. An organization helps in creation of human beings for certain specified objectives, the activities of its members need to be directed in a certain way. Direction of activities in the organization is effected by the leader.

Following are the importance of good leadership:-
MOTIVATING EMPLOYEES:- Motivation is very important for work performance. If the motivation is higher then the performance would be better. A good leader is a person who makes use of his leadership & motivates the employees for higher performance. Good leadership in the organization itself is a motivating factor for the individuals. CREATING CONFIDENCE:- A good leader may create confidence in his followers by directing them, giving them advice & getting through them good results in the organization. Once an individual with the help of a leader puts high efficiency, he tries to maintain it as he acquires certain level of confidence towards his capacity. Sometimes, individual fails to recognize their qualities & capabilities to work in the absence of good direction. BUILDING MORALE:- Morale is expressed as attitudes of employees towards organization, management & voluntary co – operation to offer their ability to the organization. High morale leads to high productivity & organizational stability. Through providing good leadership in the organization, employees morale can be raised high ensuring high productivity & stability in the organization. Good leadership is important in all aspects of managerial functions whether it be motivation, communication or direction. Good leadership ensures success in the organization, & unsatisfactory human performance in any organization can be primarily attributed to poor leadership.

LEADERSHIP THEORIES:- Following are the leadership theories:-
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP THEORY:- It is also known as “GREAT MAN THEORY”. They provide some insight of leadership. The study is based on insights which have suggested that “a leader is born & is not made”. A leader has some charisma which acts as influencer. Charisma is a Greek word meaning gift. Thus, charisma is a God – gifted attribute in a person which makes him a leader irrespective of the situations in which he works. Charismatic leaders are those who inspire followers & have major impact on their organizations based on their personal vision & energy. A leader is a person who has high visibility & personal charisma which help to catch the public consciousness. IMPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY:- Charismatic leadership has re – emerged due to 2 reasons. Namely:- (i). Many companies in USA have embarked on organizational transformation programs of extensive changes that must be accomplished in short period of time. Such transformations, requires or needs transformational leaders. (ii). Many feel that by concentrating on traits, behaviors & situations, leadership theories have lost sight of the leaders. These theories discuss about transactional leaders & not about transformational leaders. Transactional leader tells what the subordinates need to do to achieve objectives, classifies

those requirements, & helps subordinates to become confident that they can reach their objectives. A transformational leader inspires his followers through vision & energy. Trait, behavioral & situational leadership theories fail to explain the reason behind the deeds of great political leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Lenin, etc., who transformed their nations, or great industrialists like JRD Tata, GD Birla, Dhirubhai Ambani, who created vast industrial empires because of their vision, energy & entrepreneurship. Charismatic leaders theory does that. 2. TRAIT THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP:- Trait approach leadership studies became popular between 1930 & The method of study was to select leaders of eminence & their characteristics were studied. It was the hypothesis that the persons having certain traits could become successful leaders. According to Stogdill various trait theories have suggested these traits in a successful leader:- (i). Physical & constitutional factors like height, weight, physique, energy, health, appearance. (ii). Intelligence. (iii). Self – confidence. (iv). Sociability. (v). Will like initiative, persistence, ambition. (vi). Dominance.

(vii). Surgency like talkative, cheerfulness, geniality, enthusiasm, expressiveness, alertness & originality. INNATE QUALITIES:- Innate qualities are those which are possessed by various individuals since their birth. These qualities are natural & often known as God – gifted. On the basis of such qualities, it is said that, “leaders are born & not made”. These qualities cannot be acquired by individuals. Following are major innate qualities present in a successful leader:- PHYSICAL FEATURES:- Physical feature of an individual is based on heredity factors. Heredity is the transmission of the qualities from ancestors to descendants. Physical characteristics & rate of maturation helps to tell about personality formation which is an important factor in determine leadership success. To some extent height, weight, physique, health & appearance are important for leadership. INTELLIGENCE:- For leadership higher level of intelligence is needed. Intelligence tells about mental ability. Intelligence to great extent, is a natural quality in the individuals because it is directly related with brain. ACQUIRABLE QUALITIES:- Acquirable qualities of leadership are those which can be acquired & increased through various processes. In fact when a child is born he learns behavioral patterns through socialization & identification processes. Such behavioral patterns are developed among the child as traits over a period of time. Many of these traits can be increased through training

Following are the main qualities present in a successful leader:-
EMOTIONAL STABILITY:- A leader should have high level of emotional stability. He should be free from bias, is consistent action & anger. He is well adjusted & has no anti – social attitudes. He is self – confident & believes that he can meet most situations successfully. HUMAN RELATIONS:- A successful leader should have knowledge of human relations that is how he should deal with human beings. A leader’s job is to develop people & get their voluntary co – operation for getting work done, he should have intimate knowledge of people & their relationship with each other. The knowledge how human beings behave & how they react to various situations is quiet meaningful & important to a leader. EMPATHY:- Empathy relates to observing the things or situations from other’s point of view. The ability to look at things & to understand them from other’s point of view is important for successful leadership. Empathy needs respect for other persons, their rights, beliefs, values & feelings. OBJECTIVITY:- Objectivity tells what a leader does should be based on important facts & information. He must assess this without any bias of prejudice. The leader must base his relationship on his objectivity. He is objective & does not allow himself to get emotionally involved to the extent that he finds it difficult to make an objective diagnosis & implement the action required. MOTIVATING SKILLS:- Not only a leader is self – motivated but he has

qualities to motivate his followers
qualities to motivate his followers. There are many external factors which motivate a person for higher performance, there is inner drive in people also for motivation to work. The leader can play an active role in stimulating these inner drives of his followers. A leader must understand his people to this extent that he can know how he can activate them. TECHNICAL SKILLS:- To lead people definite principles must be understood & followed for great success. The ability to plan, organize, delegate, analyze, seek advice, make decision, control & to win co – operation needs the use of important abilities which constitute technical competence of leadership. The various technical competence of leader may help to win the support from the followers. COMMUNICATION SKILLS:- A successful leader knows how to communicate effectively. Communication has great force in getting the acceptance from the receivers of communication. A leader use communication skillfully for persuasive, informative & stimulating purposes. Normally, a successful leader is extrovert as compared to introvert. SOCIAL SKILLS:- A successful leader has social skills. He understands people & knows their strengths & weaknesses. He has the ability to work with people & conducts himself so that he gains their confidence & loyalty, & people co – operate willingly with him.

IMPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY:- This theory has 2 main implications
IMPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY:- This theory has 2 main implications. Namely:- (i). The theory emphasizes that a leader needs some traits & qualities to be effective. (ii). Many of these qualities maybe developed in individuals through training & development programs. The theory has 2 limitations. Namely:- (a). GENERALIZATION OF TRAITS:- There are problems in identification of traits which maybe important for a leader to be effective in all situations. For e.g., House & Batez concluded that the various studies of traits have failed to uncover any traits that clearly & consistently distinguish leaders & followers. Many other behavioral scientists have same views. From this point of view, the theory suffers due to following limitations:- There cannot be generalization of traits for a successful leader. This was evident by various researches made on leadership traits. No evidence has been given about the degree of various traits because people have various traits with different degrees. There is a problem of measuring the traits. Though there are various tests to measure the personality traits, however, no definite conclusion can be drawn. (b). APPLICABLITY OF TRAITS:- Another set of problems that hinders the full application of trait theory in practice, is that leadership as a process of influence reflects in leader’s behavior & not in his traits. There have been many persons with traits specified for a leader, but actually they could not become effective leaders. The reason for this is because there is no direct cause – effect relationship between a trait of a person & his behavior. The trait maybe only one of the factors which help in shaping behavior; the other factors, sometimes even more important, are situational variables. These situational variables are not incorporated in the trait theory.

THE SITUATIONAL THEORY OF LEADERSHIP:- Hersey & Blanchard (1982) combined the grid approach theories to propose their situational theory of leadership. According to this theory, leadership is a function of the situation & an effective leader in one who assesses the situation accurately, uses a style appropriate to the situation, is flexible & is also able to influence & alter the situation. LEADERSHIP STYLES:- There are 4 leadership styles categorized on the basis or the appropriateness of each style to effectively manage a situation on the dynamics of the teams & the leader. REGULATING BEHAVIOR:- In this a leader engages in one – way communication; spells out the groups roles & tells the group members what to do, where to do it, when to do it & how to do it; & closely supervises their performance. Three words can be used to define regulating behavior: structure, control & supervise. NURTURING BEHAVIOR:-In this a leader engages in two – way communication, listens, provides support & encouragement, facilitates interaction & involves the group in decision making. Three words can be used to define nurturing behavior: praise, listen & facilitate. STYLE 1: DIRECTIVE:- High regulating & low nurturing leader behavior is called “Directive Style”. The leader defines the roles of group members, telling

them what tasks to do & how, when & where to do them
them what tasks to do & how, when & where to do them. Problem – solving & decision – making are initiated only by the leader. Solutions & decisions are announced, communication is largely one –way, & the leader closely supervises implementation. STYLE 2: SUPPORTIVE:- High regulating & high nurturing behavior is called “Supportive Style”. In this style the leader still provides a great deal of direction & leads with his or her ideas but the leader attempts to discover the group’s feelings about decisions as well as eliciting their ideas & suggestions. While two – way communication & support are increased, control over decision - making remains with the leader. STYLE 3: CONSULTING:- High nurturing & low regulating leader behavior is called “Consulting Style”. In this style, the focus of control for day – to – day decision - making & problem – solving shifts from the leader to the group members. The leader’s role is to provide recognition & to actively listen & facilitate problem – solving & decision – making on the part of the group. STYLE 4: DELEGATING:- Low nurturing & low regulating leader behavior is labeled delegating style. The leader discusses problems with his or her people until a joint agreement is achieved on problem definition & then the decision – making process is delegated totally to the group members. Now it is the group that has significant control over deciding how tasks are to be accomplished.

THE FOUR LEADERSHIP STYLES
REGULATING BEHAVIOR N LOW HIGH U R T HIGH I N G B E LOW H A V O LOW REGULATING HIGH NURTURING S 3 CONSULTING HIGH REGULATING HIGH NURTURING S 2 SUPPORTIVE LOW REGULATING LOW NURTURING S 4 DELEGATING HIGH REGULATING LOW NURTURING S 1 DIRECTIVE

LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS:- Leadership effectiveness & delegation in addition to the style of leadership are key elements of a dynamic process of making individual members of a team more effective & competent to achieve organizational goals. Following are the things that helps in leadership effectiveness:- RAISING COMPETENCE LEVELS:- The competence level of a group is made up of the competence of its members. Competence includes the understanding (based on knowledge) & skills required to perform a job. Competence levels of individual members can be summed up & the average gives the group’s competence level. Competence – building requires providing information relevant to the roles, building skills to fulfill the roles effectively, & planning a proper long – term training strategy. RAISING COMMITMENT LEVELS:- Commitment or motivation refers to the willingness of individual members to set & accept challenging goals, their eagerness to take responsibility, their involvement in the work, & job satisfaction. Again, the average of individual ratings or scores gives the group’s motivational level. Commitment – building ( developing motivation) can be facilitated by helping individual members to set realistic & challenging goals, supporting them to achieve these, &recognizing their achievement through feedback & rewards.

RAISING TEAMWORK LEVELS:- The teamwork level can be diagnosed by assessing the level of cohesion, collaboration & confrontation in the group. Cohesion means that the group functions as a strong team & each member feels that his or her views & concerns are considered by others.Collaboration indicates that some tasks are done by the members as small teams & members feel free to volunteer, ask for, & respond to requests for help. Confrontation implies that whenever there is a problem that concerns the group, the group faces the problem & deals with it, generating alternative solutions & taking decisions about a course of action. Team building can be achieved by making teams responsible for various tasks, allocating resources to them, & recognizing the importance of teamwork through team rewards, the high value accorded to teamwork in performance appraisal systems, & special programs to reduce conflict & increase collaboration. RAISING DEVELOPMENT LEVELS THROUGH DELIGATION:- The movement of a group can be accelerated through delegation. In short, leadership is the dynamic process of making people more effective, increasing their competence to multiply power, & achieving goals through them. There are different styles of participating in this process. However, the ultimate goal of a leader is to develop his or her team & people to become more effective & competent to achieve organizational goals as well as their own objectives.

DELEGATION:- Every person has some assets (physical strength, knowledge, interpersonal competence, ability to persuade, etc.). All these are sources of power. We can say that every person has power. The process of empowering is concerned with creating conditions in which this inner power can be used effectively. For e.g., if we create an opportunity for a person with interpersonal competence to solve conflicts, we have empowered that person. Empowering is thus the process of expanding an individual’s choices & helping him or her to use these alternative choices to widen the choices of others. Power can thus be seen as expanding & multiplying. Delegation helps senior employees to work out strategies for doing the same with their junior colleagues. Delegation is a useful way of multiplying power in an organization. The purpose of delegation will fail, if it is used by a leader or a senior to ‘give’ tasks which he or she does not like or for which he or she does not have time to a junior colleague. It will also fail if the junior colleague feels ‘overloaded’ with responsibility. Similarly, it cannot succeed in its purpose if it is unilaterally done by the senior person. It should involve joint decision – making. It is therefore a multi – step process.

STEPS FOR DELEGATION:- Following are the steps used for delegation:-
JOINTLY DEFINE ROLE BOUNDARIES:- Delegation has 2 roles, the role of the delegator & that of the delegatee. With delegation, their roles & responsibilities are likely to change. These changes in responsibility must be discussed & decided upon. For e.g., the senior manager & the junior manager reporting to her or him must sit down & discuss what responsibilities will be taken up by the senior manager (e.g., periodic monitoring, guiding, consulting in complex matters, reviewing progress, providing facilities to the manager, etc) & what responsibilities will be taken up by her or his subordinate (examining the cases, sanctioning loans, following up payment of installments, etc.). Delegation is not simply passing on the workload; it is the process of giving more responsibility & challenge to the delegatee. Decisions about responsibilities should be taken jointly. Since others also need to know about the functions the delegatee will perform, these need to be described fully & made known widely. PROVIDE NEEDED COMPETENCE:- Most functions delegated will be new to the delegatee & contain higher responsibilities. For e.g., before sanctioning loans the junior manager must examine several documents, visit the site, investigate the applicant’s profile, etc. He or she was not doing these things earlier & these are his or her new responsibilities. The delegatee should do a

self – assessment & openly discuss what new competencies he or she should develop in order to do justice to the new functions. The delegator should then prepare a plan, in consultation with the delegatee, for how the latter will develop these competencies. For e.g., the manager to whom new responsibilities are delegated may not have much knowledge of insurance procedures. During the discussion, this weakness maybe brought up. The senior manager may then arrange for the subordinate’s training in insurance procedures before he or she is delegated the new responsibility. PROVIDE NEEDED RESOURCES:- The same is true of resources (financial, material, technological & human) required for effective performance of the new functions. These should be assessed & provision must be made to provide such support to the delegatee. For e.g., the junior manager may find that he would need assistant to help in analyzing various documents so that he or she is able to sanction the loans faster. Such help may then be provided to the delegatee. MONITOR BUT DO NOT SUPERVISE CLOSELY:- Monitoring of the performance of the delegated functions for sometime is essential. This may provide the needed support or help. Monitoring may also indicate the delegator’s interest & moral support. If overdone, though, this can be counterproductive. Close supervision of the performance of delegated functions by the delegator may indicate lack of trust in the competence of the

delegatee. In this case, the senior manager & his or her subordinate may decide that they will meet every month to review progress rather than meeting every day or reviewing each case. The delegator should not breathe down the neck of the delegatee. REWARD DISCRETION & INITIATIVE:- Delegation is an evolutionary & developmental process. It needs to be encouraged & reinforced. Delegation involves taking initiative & using discretion in the delegated functions. If these are rewarded, the process of delegation will be stronger & more successful. For e.g., if there is a problem with the insurance company in a certain home loan application, the junior manager may take the initiative in working with the insurance company to remove the hurdle & using his or her discretionary power, may sanction the loan. This will be taking a calculated risk but leadership involves moderate risk – taking. RESPECT ROLE BOUNDARIES:- Once a decision has been jointly taken by the senior & junior colleagues on delegation, the redefined role boundaries must be respected. The delegatee is likely to make mistakes. The delegator maybe tempted to rush in to rescue him or her. This may destroy the spirit of delegation. No decision should be taken ‘over the head’ of the delegatee in matters delegated to the latter. If the decision is to be changed, the delegatee should do it after discussion with the delegator & after being convinced of the need to change the decision. For e.g., if the junior manager has made a

mistake or delayed sanctioning a loan & the customer complains about it, it would be improper for the senior manager to solve the problem. Instead, he or she should discuss the matter with the manager & provide him or her any support he or she needs to solve the problem. This problem often arises when ‘influential’ clients approach higher authorities to get things done. JOINTLY ANALYZE MISTAKES TO PLAN FOR THE FUTURE:- In periodic reviews, mistakes maybe used as experiences from which to learn to improve delegation. The mistakes made, difficulties experienced, etc., can be analyzed in such review meetings in order to plan how these maybe avoided in future. Such experiences may raise many issues which could be useful for improvement of the delegatee. Some mistakes are likely to be made by the delegatee in performing newly delegated functions. Initiative involves risk & the possibility of mistakes. Such mistakes must be regarded as experiences from which to learn to improve performance. The review meetings may therefore include analysis of mistakes & problems so that the future performance level goes up. REVIEW DELEGATION DOWN THE LINE:- Often, people want delegation only up to their own level. Delegation is a widening process of empowerment. Each senior person involved in delegation should discuss with his or her junior colleagues how the latter can delegate some useful functions to his or her colleagues at the next level. This will help to multiply power through delegation. For e.g., the manager should be asked which of his current functions he or she would like to delegate so that he or she can do full justice to his or her new responsibilities. The manager may then start the same process of delegation with his or her subordinate.

GROUP DYNAMICS DEFINITION OF GROUP:- In every organization, groups are formed by individuals through their mutual interactions on the basis of their personal & social relationship developed among them. Group means a cluster of 2 or more individuals who are always interacting with each other & share certain common values, interests & goals. Groups exists in every organization & they affect the behavior of their members. They not only affect the behavior of their members they have impact on the other groups & the organization as a whole. Such groups are created by the organization as well as by the organization members for their own satisfaction. An organization divides its tasks into small tasks which are assigned to various sub – units. Division of tasks & passes them down until a level is reached where several people take a sub – goal & divide it among themselves as individuals, but no longer create work unit. If one wants to study the organization, he or she will have to understand groups & their functioning. Group dynamics provides understanding of groups. A group is a collection of 2 or more people who have a common goal & interact with each other to accomplish their goal, are aware of one another & perceive themselves to be a part of the group. Each person influences & is influenced by each other. Casual gathering of people does not qualify as a group because the people are not aware of one another & do not interact between themselves in a

meaningful way. People sitting in a cinema hall watching a movie or waiting at a platform for a train do not necessarily constitute or form a group. GROUP DYNAMICS:- Group dynamics contains of 2 terms: group & dynamics. Group is basically a collection of 2 or more persons. Dynamics comes from Greek word meaning force. Theory of dynamics is used in physical & engineering which explains the phenomena of universe by some immanent energy: operation of force. Thus, group dynamics refers to the interaction of forces between group members in a social situation. However, the term group dynamics is defined in different ways. One view is that group dynamics describes how a group should be organized & operated. This includes democratic leadership, participation & co – operation. Another view takes group dynamics as a set of techniques such as role playing, brainstorming, leaderless group, group therapy, sensitivity training, etc. According to the third view, group dynamics is viewed from the internal nature of the group, their formation, structure & processes & the way they affect individual members, other groups & the organization. This view is more prevalent & mostly used. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GROUP:- Following are the characteristics of a group:- INTERACTION BETWEEN MEMBERS:- The members of a group must interact with each other. Each member influences the behavior of the other & gets influenced by others. The interaction should normally be on regular basis

for a longer period of time depending on the type & nature of the group.
AWARENESS:- The people in a group must be aware of each other & must relate to each other in some way or the other. Unless & until they feel that they are members of a particular group meaningful interaction among them may not take place. The relations among the members in a group maybe based on common areas like interest, goals & activities, etc. GROUP PERCEPTION:- The members of a group should perceive themselves as a collective identity. Once a group is formed, it acquires its own structure, process & goals & performs certain functions. The identity of a group is separate from the identity of its members. COMMON OBJECTIVES:- The formulation of a group is closely related to some common goals or purpose. The achievement of common goals of a group is a matter of common concern for every member & they have an obligation to contribute to attaining the common goals. TYPES OF GROUPS IN AN ORGANIZATON:- Following are the types of in an organization:- 1. SMALL & LARGE GROUPS:- A small group is compact set of a few individuals. Members of such a group have almost fact – to –face interactions, communication, interpersonal relations & independence. While, a large group is usually a collection of a few small groups. Small groups remain more compact in nature because their members are well knit or united & closely related to each other. The degree of interaction & independence of the

members is higher as compared to large groups
members is higher as compared to large groups. Large groups consist of greater number of members as well as many more smaller groups. So structure of relationships, types of interactions & nature of interpersonal relations will be different from that of small groups. Business organizations, society, nation, etc. are good examples of large groups. PRIMARY & SECONDARY GROUPS:- A primary group is characterized by intimate, face – to - face association & co – operation. The membership of such group is small & is based on intimate relationship. For e.g., groups maybe family, friendship groups or neighborhood groups. A secondary group is more formal, general & remote. The members of secondary group may have any interest in the problems & pleasures of others. The continuous interaction, intimacy, face – to –face interaction, co –operation & association of primary groups may not be found in secondary groups. MEMBERSHIP & REFERENCE GROUPS:- A membership group is one to which an individual really belongs while a reference group is one with which the individual identifies or to which he or she would like to belong. An individual can be a member of several groups at a time but may not participate actively in all such groups but he or she would like to participate in that whose norms are more attractive. The reference group makes the norms of that group more attractive to the individual who aspires to it & its norms will therefore, become more influential in determining behavior. The reference groups have relevance to organizational behavior.

COMMAND & TASK GROUPS:- A command group is made of subordinates who report directly to a common superior. This type of group is determined by organization chart. For e.g., a group maybe a production manager & his subordinates in his department, a college principal & teachers. A task group is made of employees who work together to complete a particular task or project. A task group is formed to solve problems or perform an activity that involves a number of organizational units. IN – GROUPS & OUT – GROUPS:- In – groups represents a clustering of individuals holding prevailing values in a society or at least, having a dominant place in social functioning. It can be a majority numerically or it may represent the power structure with its pattern of behavior considered desirable. Out – group is looked up as subordinate or marginal in the society; it is usually referred to as the minority group even though in certain instances, it may represent a numerical majority. FORMAL & INFORMAL GROUPS:- In any organization, 2 types of groups exist: formal & informal groups. A formal group is a work unit that is deliberately created by the management as a part of the organization structure, to perform tasks that enhance the accomplishment of organizational objectives. It is an ‘official’ group whose members are selected by the management according to their talents in order to assume certain defined roles & to undertake specific tasks. The functioning of such a group is governed by organizational rules, procedures & policies. In a informal group,

members cut across formal relationships of superior & subordinate & develop personal & social relationships on the basis of common interests, needs & values. The informal groups emerge spontaneously out of personal, social & natural instincts among the members. They coexist along with the formal groups. Generally, informal groups are not stable as their existence depends upon the needs, values & goals of the members forming them. CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL ORGANIZATION:- Following are the characteristics of formal organization:- 1. Organization structure is designed by the top management to fulfill certain requirements – performance of necessary activities thereby achieving organizational goals. 2. Organization structure is based on the principles of division of labor & efficiency in the operations. 3. Organization concentrates more on the performance of jobs & not on the individuals performing the jobs. 4. The authority & responsibility assigned to each job have to be adhered to by the job holders. Based on the concept of authority & responsibility, people are placed in hierarchy & their status is determined accordingly. 5. Co – ordination among members & their control are well specified through processes, procedures, rules, etc.

CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMAL ORGANIZATION:- Following are the characteristics of informal organization:- Informal organization is a natural outcome at the work place. It is not designed & planned. Informal organization is created on the basis of some similarity among its members. The bases of similarity maybe age, sex, place of origin, caste, religion, personality characteristics, likings & disliking, etc. 3.Membership in an informal organization is voluntary. A person may become a member of several informal organizations at the same time. 4.Behavior of members of the informal organization is co – ordinate & controlled by the group norms & not by the norms of the formal organization. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FORMAL & INFORMAL GROUPS:- Following are the difference between formal & informal groups:- FORMATION:- Formal groups are deliberately designed & structured & managed in a pre – planned manner, while informal groups emerge spontaneously & naturally out of formal structure. PURPOSE:- The main purpose of formal group is to seek achievement of pre – determined common goals, but informal groups are aimed at satisfying social & personal needs of members. LEADERSHIP:- Leadership in a formal group is backed by formal authority & power position held by the leader, but in an informal group, it is based on competence, personality, abilities & acceptance by the group members.

RELATIONSHIPS:- Pattern of relationships in a formal group is strictly based on rationality, legality & contract but personal, social & emotional elements govern the pattern of relationships in informal groups. SIZE:- Formal groups are invariably larger in size as against informal groups which tend to be smaller in size. COMMUNICATION:- Members in a formal group communicate through chain of command while informal channels based on personal & social relations are used by members in an informal group to communicate with each other. 7. STABILITY:- Formal groups tend to be well structured & meticulously planned in every respect but informal groups remain loosely structured & disappear at slightest pretext. Thus, informal groups are prone to uncertainty & instability. CAUSES OF FORMATION OF GROUPS:- Following are the causes of formation of groups:- DESIRE FOR SOCIALIZATION:- Man is a social being. He wants to socialize with others. Being a member of a number of informal groups allows him or her to satisfy his or her social needs on the job. He or she can interact with others rather than working in isolated loneliness. SENSE OF IDENTIFICATION:- Many people have an urge to be identified as members of a distinct group. So they form special groups as cricket club, literary society, etc. This might also help in increasing their status.

GOAL ACHIEVEMENT:- People form groups to pool talents, knowledge & resources to achieve common goals or interests. People doing common task confront similar types of problems. To remove such problems they can constitute a separate group. MONTONOUS JOBS:- Workers performing standardized routine jobs often feel bored. In order to reduce their mental fatigue at work, they may form informal groups & have frequent interactions with each other at the work place. SECURITY:- There is strength in numbers. By joining a group, a person can reduce the insecurity of standing alone. Groups help the members to meet pressures effectively. Further, they feel secured against the management’s arbitrariness. IMPORTANCE OF INFORMAL GROUPS FOR THE ORGANIZATION:- Following are the importance of informal groups for the organization:- SUPPORT TO FORMAL STRUCTURE:- Informal groups provide support to formal organization structure. Formal structure is mechanistic & hierarchical. Informal groups provide a human dimension to it. They fill the gaps in the formal structure. SPEEDY COMMUNICATION:- Informal communication is very fast as it is free from the barriers of status & position. It can be used by the management to ensure free flow of communication.

SOCIAL FUNCTIONS:- Informal groups arise to satisfy social needs of members such as security, friendship, sense of belonging, etc. Thus, informal organization gives psychological satisfaction to its members. It provides them a platform to express their feelings. It also satisfies the natural desire of people to form groups. SOLUTION OF WORK PROBLEMS:- An informal organization helps its members to solve their work problems through the help of other members – sharing of knowledge & experience. NORMS OF BEHAVIOR:- Informal groups develop certain norms of behavior which differentiate between good & bad conduct & between legitimate & illegitimate activities. These bring discipline & order among the employees of the organization. BETTER RELATIONS:- A manager can build better relations with his subordinates through informal contacts. He or she can consult the informal leaders & seek their co – operation in getting the things done from the workers.

LEARNING LEARNING:- Learning is a process of acquiring of new inputs in term of knowledge & understanding, some physical activity or a new behavior (including.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "LEARNING LEARNING:- Learning is a process of acquiring of new inputs in term of knowledge & understanding, some physical activity or a new behavior (including."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback

Log in

Auth with social network:

LEARNING LEARNING:- Learning is a process of acquiring of new inputs in term of knowledge & understanding, some physical activity or a new behavior (including.

Similar presentations

Presentation on theme: "LEARNING LEARNING:- Learning is a process of acquiring of new inputs in term of knowledge & understanding, some physical activity or a new behavior (including."— Presentation transcript:

Similar presentations

About project

Feedback