1. Biodiversity and Conservation

2. Levels of Biodiversity
Humans are reducing Earth’s diversity of life
Biodiversity – sum total of all organisms in an area
Split into three specific levels:
Species diversity
Genetic diversity
Ecosystem diversity

3. Species Diversity
Species Diversity = the number or variety of species in the world or in a particular region
Richness = the number of species
Evenness or relative abundance = extent to which numbers of individuals of different species are equal or skewed
Speciation generates new species and adds to species richness
Extinction reduces species richness

4. Taxonomy Taxonomists = scientists who classify species
Physical appearance and genetics determines a species
Genera = related species are grouped together
Families = groups of genera
Every species has a two-part scientific name: genus and species

5. Subspecies
Siberian tiger = Panthera tigris altaica
Subspecies = populations of species that occur in different areas and differ slightly from each other
Divergence stops short of separating the species
Subspecies are denoted with a third part of the scientific name
Bengal tiger = Panthera tigris tigris

6. Genetic Diversity
Encompasses the differences in DNA among individuals within species and populations
The raw material for adaptation to local conditions
Populations with higher genetic diversity can survive
They can cope with environmental change
Populations with low genetic diversity are vulnerable
To environmental change
Disease
Inbreeding depression = genetically similar parents mate and produce inferior offspring

7. Diversity Ecosystem diversity = the number and variety of ecosystems
Also encompasses differing communities and habitats
Rapid vegetation change and varying landscapes within an ecosystem promote higher levels of biodiversity

8. Diversity Species are not evenly distributed among taxonomic groups
Insects predominate over all other life-forms
40% of all insects are beetles
Groups accumulate species by
Adaptive radiation
Allopatric speciation (species isolation)
Low rates of extinction
Review Evolution
Microevolution, macroevolution, natural selection, artificial selection, fitness, adaptation, niche, mutation, sympatric vs. allopatric speciation, bottleneck, founder effects.

10. Measuring Biodiversity
Out of the estimated million species on Earth, only million species have been successfully catalogued
Very difficult to identify species
Many remote spots on Earth remain unexplored
Small organisms are easily overlooked
Many species look identical until thoroughly examined
Entomologist Terry Erwin found 163 beetle species specialized on one tree species
Refer to lab and Simpson’s Index

11. Biodiversity is not evenly distributed
Living things are distributed unevenly across Earth
Latitudinal gradient = species richness increases towards the equator
Canada has species of breeding birds, while Costa Rica has more than 600 species

12. Latitude Gradient and Biodiversity

13. Loss of Species Extinction is a natural process
Paleontologists estimate 99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct
Background rate of extinction = natural extinctions for a variety of reasons
1 extinction per 1 to 10 million species for mammals and marine species
1 species out of 1,000 mammal and marine species would go extinct every 1,000 to 10,000 years
Extinction = occurs when the last member of a species dies and the species ceases to exist
Extirpation = the disappearance of a particular population from a given area, but not the entire species globally
Can lead to extinction

14. Endangered and Threatened Species
Endangered and Extinct Species
Endangered and Threatened Species
Threatened
Endangered
Population declining very fast.
Could become extinct soon.
Spectacled Bear

15. Endangered and Extinct Species
Characteristics of Endangered Species
Extremely small range
Requiring large territories
Living on islands
Low reproductive success
Specialized breeding areas
Specialized feeding habits
Tiburon mariposa lily
California condor
Hawaii ‘O’ o
Blue whale
Green sea turtle
Giant panda

16. Endangered and Extinct Species
Most Impacted areas
Hawaii and other island habitats
Tropical rain forests

17. Past Mass Extinctions
In the past 440 million years, mass extinctions have eliminated at least 50% of all species
After every mass extinction the biodiversity returned to or exceeded its original state

18. Current Mass Extinction is Human Caused
During this Quaternary period, we may lose more than half of all species
Hundreds of human-induced species extinctions, and multitudes of others, teeter on the brink of extinction
The current global extinction rate is 100 to 1,000 times greater than the background rate
This rate will increase tenfold in future decades due to human population growth and resource consumption

19. Loss of Biodiversity is more than extinction
Decreasing numbers are accompanied by smaller species’ geographic ranges
Genetic, ecosystem, and species diversity are being lost.
The Living Planet Index summarizes trends in populations
Between 1970 and 2003, the Index fell by 30%

20. Causes of Biodiversity Loss
Reasons for biodiversity losses are multifaceted, complex, and hard to determine
Factors may interact synergistically
Four primary causes of population decline are:
Habitat alteration
Invasive species
Pollution
Overharvesting
Global climate change now is the fifth cause

21. Habitat Loss The greatest cause of biodiversity loss
Farming simplifies communities
Grazing modifies the grassland structure and species composition
Clearing forests removes resources organisms need
Hydroelectric dams turn rivers into reservoirs upstream
Urbanization and suburban sprawl reduce natural communities
A few species (i.e., pigeons, rats) benefit from changing habitats

22. Invasive Species
Introduction of non-native species to new environments
Accidental: zebra mussels
Deliberate: food crops
Island species are especially vulnerable
Invaders have no natural predators, competitors, or parasites
Cost billions of dollars in economic damage

24. Pollution Harms organisms in many ways
Air pollution degrades forest ecosystems
Water pollution adversely affects fish and amphibians
Agricultural runoff harms terrestrial and aquatic species
The effects of oil and chemical spills on wildlife are dramatic and well known
The damage to wildlife and ecosystems caused by pollution can be severe
But it tends to be less than the damage caused by habitat alteration or invasive species

25. Overharvesting
Vulnerable species are large, few in number, long-lived, and have few young (K-selected species)
The Siberian tiger is hunted without rules and regulations
The early 1990s saw increased poaching because of powerful economic incentives
Many other species affected: Atlantic gray whale, sharks, gorillas
Today the oceans contain only 10% of the large animals they once did

26. Climate Change Emissions of greenhouse gases warms temperatures
Modifies global weather patterns and increases the frequency of extreme weather events
Increases stress on populations and forces organisms to shift their geographic ranges
Most animals and plants will not be able to cope

28. Biodiversity is good for ecosystems (ecosystem services)
Provides food, shelter, fuel
Purifies air and water, and detoxifies wastes
Stabilizes climate, moderates floods, droughts, wind, temperature
Generates and renews soil fertility and cycles nutrients
Pollinates plants and controls pests and disease
Maintains genetic resources
Provides cultural and aesthetic benefits
Allows us to adapt to change

29. Biodiversity Loss in an Ecosystem
Biodiversity increases the stability and resilience of communities and ecosystems
Decreased biodiversity reduces a natural systems ability to function and provide services to our society
The loss of a species affects ecosystems differently
If the species can be functionally replaced by others, it may make little difference
Extinction of a keystone species may cause other species to decline or disappear
“To keep every cog and wheel is the first precaution of intelligent tinkering” (Aldo Leopold)

30. Biodiversity affects food security
Genetic diversity within crops is enormously valuable
Turkey’s wheat crops received $50 billion worth of disease resistance from wild wheat
Wild strains provide disease resistance and have the ability to grow back year after year without being replanted

31. Biodiversity and Medicines
Each year pharmaceutical products owing their origin to wild species generate up to $150 billion in sales
The rosy periwinkle produces compounds that treat Hodgkin's disease and leukemia

32. Some economic benefits of biodiversity
People like to experience protected natural areas, creating economic opportunities for residents, particularly in developing countries
Costa Rica: rainforests (Excellent at ecotourism)
Australia: Great Barrier Reef
Belize: reefs, caves, and rainforests
A powerful incentive to preserve natural areas and reduce impacts on the landscape and on native species
But, too many visitors to natural areas can degrade the outdoor experience and disturb wildlife

33. People Value and seek nature
Biophilia = connections that humans subconsciously seek with life
Our affinity for parks and wildlife
Keeping of pets
High value of real estate with views of natural lands
Nature deficit disorder = alienation from the natural environment
May be behind the emotional and physical problems of the young

34. Conservation Biology
Conservation biology = devoted to understanding the factors that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biodiversity
Arose as scientists became alarmed at the degradation of natural systems
An applied and goal-oriented science

35. Conservation Biology
Conservation biologists integrate evolution and extinction with ecology and environmental systems
Design, test, and implement ways to mitigate human impacts
Conservation geneticists = study genetic attributes of organisms to infer the status of their population
Minimum viable population = how small a population can become before it runs into problems
Metapopulations = a network of subpopulations
Small populations are most vulnerable to extinction and need special attention

37. Should we focus on endangered species?
Endangered Species Act (1973) (ESA) = forbids the government and private citizens from taking actions that destroy endangered species or their habitats-40 Year anniversary!
To prevent extinction
Stabilize declining populations
Enable populations to recover
US has approximately 2050 endangered species.

38. ESA
Through federal action and by encouraging the establishment of state programs, the 1973 Endangered Species Act provided for the conservation of ecosystems upon which threatened and endangered species of fish, wildlife, and plants depend. The Act:
authorizes the determination and listing of species as endangered and threatened;
prohibits unauthorized taking, possession, sale, and transport of endangered species;
provides authority to acquire land for the conservation of listed species, using land and water conservation funds;
authorizes establishment of cooperative agreements and grants-in-aid to States that establish and maintain active and adequate programs for endangered and threatened wildlife and plants;
authorizes the assessment of civil and criminal penalties for violating the Act or regulations; and
authorizes the payment of rewards to anyone furnishing information leading to arrest and conviction for any violation of the Act or any regulation issued thereunder.

39. Amendments to ESA Habitat Conservation Plans 1982 amendment to ESA
Landowner allowed to set aside land for endangered species, but develop other land with those species

40. Successes
Peregrine falcons, brown pelicans, bald eagles, and others have recovered and are no longer listed
Intensive management has stabilized other species
The red-cockaded woodpecker
40% of declining populations are now stable
These successes occur despite underfunding of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service
In recent years, political forces have attempted to weaken the ESA

41. Ways to preserve biodiversity
Captive breeding – individuals are bred and raised with the intent of reintroducing them into the wild
Zoos and botanical gardens
Some reintroductions are controversial
Ranchers opposed the reintroduction of wolves to Yellowstone National Park
Some habitat is so fragmented, a species cannot survive
Seed Banks

42. Cloning????
Cloning – a technique to create more individuals and save species from extinction
Most biologists agree that these efforts are not adequate to recreate the lost biodiversity
Ample habitat and protection in the wild are needed to save species
Jurassic Park 

43. Strategies
Conservation biologists use particular species as tools to conserve communities and ecosystems
Protecting the habitat of these umbrella species helps protect less-charismatic animals that would not have generated public interest
Flagship species – large and charismatic species used as spearheads for biodiversity conservation
The World Wildlife Fund’s panda bear
Some organizations are moving beyond the single species approach to focus on whole landscapes

44. International Conservation
UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (1973) (CITES) – protects endangered species by banning international transport of their body parts
Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) –
Seeks to conserve biodiversity
Use biodiversity in a sustainable manner
Ensure the fair distribution of biodiversity’s benefits
By 2007, 188 nations had signed on
Iraq, Somalia, the Vatican, and the U.S. did not join

45. Hot spots
Biodiversity hotspots – prioritizes regions most important globally for biodiversity
Support a great number of endemic species = species found nowhere else in the world
The area must have at least endemic plant species (0.5% of the world total)
It must have lost 70% of its habitat due to human impact

46. 2.3% of the planet’s land surface contains 50% of the world’s plant species and 42% of all terrestrial vertebrate species

47. Community Based Conservation
Protecting habitats makes good sense, but this affects people living in and near these areas
Community-based conservation = conservation biologists actively engage local people in protecting land and wildlife
Protecting land deprives people access to resources
But, it can guarantee that these resources will not be used up or sold to foreign corporations and can instead be sustainably managed
Many projects have succeeded
But, others have not, due mainly to funding problems

48. Economic Incentives
Debt-for-nature swap = a conservation organization pays off a portion of a developing country’s international debt
In exchange for a promise by the country to set aside reserves
Fund environmental education, and
Better manage protected areas
Conservation concession = conservation organizations pay nations to conserve, and not sell, resources

49. Costa Rica and Debt Swap
Under the U.S. Tropical Forest Conservation Act, the United States agreed to forgive $26 million of Costa Rica’s debt in return for the Central American nation’s commitment to redirect that money toward conservation inside its borders. The U.S. government appropriated $12.6 million for the effort. Both Conservation International (CI) and The Nature Conservancy each gave $1.26 million to the debt purchase at a discounted rate.

50. Wildlife management
Differs from conservation biology in that wildlife managers focus more often on common organisms and manage those species primarily for human benefits
Management of Aquatic Organisms
Freshwater fisheries primarily managed by state fishing regulations
Ocean fisheries commonly viewed as common property-this has lead many species close to commercial extinction

51. Case Studies and FYI
Sharks-32% of the world’s open-ocean species are threatened. They are keystone species and can potential help cancer research.
E. O. Wilson-Champion of Biodiversity
Vanishing Amphibians-an indicator Species.
Go to the media centers website and log onto discovery education-search Vanishing Frogs for a documentary
Polar Bears and Climate Change
Elephants in Africa
Black Rhinos and Poaching
Kudzu, zebra mussels, termites, gypsy moths, Cane toads (don’t know if you can get this at school)
Birds of Thailand