1. Marine Reserves The need for systems Compiled by Bill Ballantine Leigh Marine Laboratory, New Zealand

2. New Zealand's first marine reserve, near Leigh What are marine reserves?

3. Marine Reserves are places in the sea that are left undisturbed so that - They continue in their natural state. Or recover towards a more natural state.

4. No commercial fishing

5. No traditional fishing

6. No sport fishing

7. No constructions, no dumping, no dredging, no filling

8. No unnatural inputs

9. Europe has very few marine reserves and they are all small. There are no official plans to develop systems of highly protected marine reserves.

10. Europe has many Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) These are areas with some extra regulations. MPAs aim to make human activities more efficient, more effective or more sustainable. MPAs are extensions of standard marine planning. MPAs are people-orientated locality-specific knowledge dependent problem-solving

11. Marine Reserves are completely different. All potentially-disturbing activities are prohibited. The burden of proof is reversed, no evidence of damage or danger is needed All marine life is protected.

13. Marine Reserves are : A simple and practical idea. New, different and additional to existing management. Regarded by policy makers as revolutionary.

14. Four points to note: 1. I am familiar with Europe. I was born and trained in the U.K. I have often returned to Europe to work.

15. In 1960 and 1986 I carried out surveys of rocky shores

16. Plotting the distribution of Patella vulgata (against zonation, wave exposure and region)

17. Dominance of all Patella species

18. 2. I speak only for myself I hold no positions of power or influence. If you agree with any of these ideas, they become your ideas. If you do not, there is nothing I can do about it!

19. 3. There is considerable practical experience with marine reserves in New Zealand The first was established in 1975. There are now 32 reserves, covering a wide range of bioregions and habitats.

20. Poor Knights Cape Rodney - Okakari Long Bay Pollen Island Whanganui a Hei Tuhua Te Tapuwae o Rongokako Te Angiangi Kapiti Westhaven Tonga Island Long Island Pohatu Piopiotahi Te Awaatu Channel Tawharanui 200 km Marine Reserves in New Zealand 12 reserves are more than 10 years old

21. 4. Please do NOT copy what we did in New Zealand. We were slow and made many mistakes. DO adopt the principles that we learnt (slowly and painfully).

22. Why should you promote marine reserves? What are the benefits to science? Practical matters Improved understanding Provision of controls and base lines Increased scales of time and space

23. Practical Matters Protection of apparatus and experiments Provision of focus for many studies Improved support and facilities

24. Protection of apparatus From simple temperature data loggers

25. Through tide gauges

26. To complex multi-level systems (e.g. for turbidity studies)

27. And Current meters Wave buoys Microphones Video cameras, etc.

28. Protection of marked individuals and sites territorial fish

29. transplanted sporelings

30. and fixed photographic sites

31. And Marker buoys Acoustic trackers Permanent quadrats Tagged plants and animals, etc

32. Protection of experiments and manipulations on the shore

33. and in the sub-tidal

34. And Density manipulations Habitat alterations In-situ samplers, etc. Marine Reserves provide a safe and practical extension of the laboratory bench or tank.

35. Reserves provide a reason and a focus for many scientific investigations such as - Detailed behavioural and taxonomic studies Provision of identification guides and summaries Detailed surveys and habitat mapping Long-term physical monitoring

36. Taxonomic and behavioral studies e.g.13 species of Tripterygidae each with 3 colour forms (male, female, juvenile)

37. Identification guides and summaries e.g. gastropod molluscs

38. Detailed surveys and habitat mapping e.g. 1976 survey at 1 : 2000

39. Long term physical monitoring e.g. standard climate station

40. Improved support More interactions between workers and more interdisciplinary studies More sources for equipment, facilities and finance

41. More interactions e.g. free spawning of Trochus viridis recorded by Dr Kim Westerskov

42. More support e.g. for detailed aerial surveys

43. Multiple opportunities for improved understanding When a reserve is established, many changes develop – these provide new opportunities for study.

44. Ecological changes in marine reserves in NE New Zealand 1 st stage Increases in SNAPPER (sparid) ROCK LOBSTER (palinurid) 2 nd stage Decreases in SEA URCHINS (echinoid) LARGE CLAMS (bivalves) some CRYPTIC FISH 3 rd stage Increases in KELP (laminarian) 4 th stage Increases in MOBILE EPIFAUNA (small crustacea) Sessile fauna on fronds Cryptic fauna in holdfasts Canopy-sheltering fish Kelp derived POC and DOC 5 th stage Increases in juvenile SPOTTIES (labrid)

45. Increase in snapper (Pagrus auratus) inside reserve outside reserve

46. The big changes are to habitats

47. In 1976 the commonest sub-tidal reef habitat was grazed by sea-urchins (urchin barrens)

48. But with protection predators not only become commoner, they also grow larger

49. Large rock lobster can open large sea urchins

50. ‘Urchin barrens’ like this in 1976

51. are now kelp forest or turf

52. These changes: Are multiple, complex and often ecologically important. They continue to develop (for at least 30 years). They interact with natural variations (e.g. El Nino). Once the changes are observed, explanations are often clear, but the changes were not predicted or, in most cases, even thought about. For new reserves, the trends, amplitudes and timing of the changes are not predictable.

53. New comparisons are possible Inside marine reserves to outside ++ Inside to outside over time ++ Replicated marine reserves to outside ++ Distances from marine reserve boundary + Different sizes of marine reserves + Inside and outside reactions to severe natural changes + Different dates of reserve establishment ++ Changes outside with increased size of marine reserve system ++ = several published examples + = one or two examples

54. Rock lobster at the Te Angiangi reserve Inside vs outside over time inside outside

55. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Area Leigh Survey areas Snapper density affected by distance from reserve boundary i.e. edge effects

56. Increased scales of space and time Most manipulative experiments in marine ecology have space scales measured in metres – marine reserves offer kilometres. Most research projects are limited by the time scales of grants and individual appointments. – marine reserves are permanent.

57. Time lags in trophic cascades Top predators removed 1975 marine predators recover 1980 (~90%) 5-7 years kelp recovers 1993 (60%) 3 years grazers decline 1990 (76%) 10 years

58. Provision of controls and baselines Controls are essential for scientific understanding. Baselines are important for scientific measurements. Marine Reserves are controls (for all direct human exploitation, extraction and disturbance). but in an form which is unusual. Normally the scientist arranges the manipulation and merely selects the control areas. But Marine Reserves need to be set up, and manipulations continue to occur everywhere else.

59. Normally, no changes are expected in the control areas (except natural variation). But Marine Reserves continue to change in many ways, while the manipulated areas (outside) may not. Marine Reserves become less disturbed and more natural. Despite the shifting baseline, marine reserves provide the only objective measures of human-induced impacts and ecosystem health.

60. Wider benefits of marine reserves Advanced training Education Public interest and recreation Conservation Resource management

61. Advanced training e.g. habitat mapping at Mokohinau with RNZAF

62. Lines are actual dive transects

63. Education on shore

64. and in the water

65. where they can see a great deal

66. Public interest and awareness including aesthetics (photo copyright Dr K. Westerskov)

67. Scenic features (Mayor Island Marine Reserve)

68. Natural history stories e.g. Evechinus grazing on Ecklonia

69. And biodiversity gorgonians, sponges, ascidians,etc. at the Poor Knights Marine Reserve

70. Conservation Standard science – involving detailed facts, careful analysis and the ‘reduction’ of problems so that precise conclusions can be proven – is not very helpful when we are trying to conserve the FULL RANGE of marine life and its processes (including those little known or even undiscovered).

71. Marine biological diversity In particular, it is not helpful to reduce biodiversity to some simple counts of species or groups. Biodiversity includes many aspects such as – Size ranges Metabolic diversity Genetic and developmental diversity Behavioural variation Mutualisms Patterns in time

72. Size ranges Photosynthetic individuals range from <30  m diatoms and coccolithophorids

73. To >30m (Macrocystis pyrifera)

74. Metabolic diversity e.g. A sea slug that uses chloroplasts (Styliger)

75. And a snail that digests nothing (Amphibola)

76. Genetic and developmental diversity e.g. ray number in Patiriella

77. Behavioural Very large (30+ year old) rock lobster out in the open

78. Mutualisms e.g endolithic lichens in barnacles (Arthopyrenia)

79. Patterns in time e.g. 2 year cycles in Ralfsia ( a black encrusting seaweed)

80. The primary purpose of Marine Reserves is conservation. Everything is protected, including : –species not yet described –habitats not yet mapped –processes not yet recognised

81. Resource management Most discussion about marine reserves focuses on fishing. This unfortunate in three ways: First, we need marine reserves whether or not they do anything for fishing. Second, although it is likely that marine reserves will assist fishing, it is not possible to predict this in any useful sense. Third, it is rarely possible to prove such effects even when they have occurred.

82. The most important use of marine reserves for marine management is the provision of better information. In particular they allow us to separate natural changes from human-induced events

83. - Rapid increase when reserve established (fishing effect) - Decline across all sites between 1995 and 2001 (non-fish.) - Densities remain ~10 times higher in reserve (resilience) Data: Ayling 1978, McDiarmid & Breen 1992, Kelly and Haggitt 1996, 2000, 2002 Fishing and non-fishing effects in rock lobster

84. Habitat change in reserve (most urchin barrens are a human-induced effect) Babcock (1998) MEPS

85. Reserve established Even small amounts of fishing can have large effects, but the seasonal variation is natural.

86. The benefits of marine reserves to science are sufficient to warrant your professional support. The wider benefits of marine reserves are sufficient to warrant your support as a citizen. We need systems of marine reserves based on clear and demonstrable principles.

87. Scale is important

88. Principles for systems of marine reserves 1.Representation To maintain the full range of marine life, it is necessary to include in marine reserves examples of - All regions, all ecosystems, all habitats, all depths, and all substrates. Not just the well-studied Not just the biodiversity hotspots Not just the rare or beautiful Not just those considered important Not just those under threat Not just territorial seas or EEZ

89. 2. Replication In each region we need at least 3 spatially-separate examples of each ecosystem and major habitat. There are many reasons for this including: Insurance against local accidents. Inclusion of a variety within ecosystems and habitats.

90. 3. A network arrangement The reserves should be spaced across the whole region to provide – Maximal connections (including larval dispersal) between all areas. An additional range of natural variation (known or unknown). Spread of benefits (and any inconveniences).

91. 4. A sustainable amount Each reserve should be as ecologically viable as possible, but the whole system must be capable of sustaining itself. System size would be measured as % of area at each level – region, ecosystem and habitat

92. Some guidelines – At least 10% is needed for science and education To ensure conservation we would need at least 20% of the region To maximise fishery benefits this should rise to 30% In regions of very intensive use, it would be sensible to aim for at least 50%

93. The future When your grandchildren ask you about the continuing decline in marine life and the lack of marine reserves – what will you say? “It wasn’t my job …. “I was busy ….. “I thought the authorities would deal with it… Do you think they will be satisfied?

94. Acknowledgements Thanks to all the research workers and photographers who supplied material for this presentation – especially Kim WesterskovJohn Walsby Tony AylingGeoff Jones Roger GraceHoward Choat Allie MacDiarmidChris Battershill Shane KellyMike Kingsford Russ Babcock Trevor Willis Nick ShearsDarren Parsons Tim HaggittTim Langlois

95. This review covers 30+ years and the work of many people. More details and references are available at this web site - www.marine-reserves.org.nz