1. Fecal Elimination

5. Physiology of defecation Elimination of the waste products of digestion from the body is essential to health. The excreted waste products are referred to as feces or stool.

6. Large Intestine Extends from the ileocecal valve, which lies between the small and large intestines, to the anus. The colon ( large intestine ) in adult is about 125 to 150 cm long. It has seven parts :- The cecum, ascending, transverse and descending colons, sigmoid colon, rectum and anus.

7. Colon’s main functions are   Absorption of water and nutrients.   Mucal protection of the intestinal wall (mucous contain bicarbonate ions ).   Fecal elimination. The contents of the colon normally represent foods ingested over the previous 4 days, also most of the waste products are excreted within 48 hr. of ingestion.

8. Waste products leaving the stomach through the small intestine and then passing through the ileocecal valve are called chyme. Products of digestion are flatus and feces. Flatus is largely air and the by-products of the digestion of carbohydrates.

9. Three types of movements occur in the large intestine Haustral churning→ movement of the chyme back and forth within the haustra, this movement aid in the absorption of water and moves the contents forward to the next haustra. Colon peristalsis→ is wavelike movement produced by the circular and longitudinal muscle fibers of the intestinal walls, it propels the intestinal contents forward.

10. Mass peristalsis→ involves a wave of powerful muscular contraction that moves over large areas of the colon. Rectum and Anal canal Rectum in the adult is usually 10 to 15 cm long. Anal canal is the most distal portion 2.5 to 5 cm long.

11. In the rectum are folds that extend vertically. Each of the vertical folds contains a vein and artery. When the veins become distended with repeated pressure, a condition known as hemorrhoids ( bile's ).The anal canal is bounded by an internal and an external sphincter muscle.The internal sphincter is under involuntary control, and the external sphincter normally is voluntarily controlled.

13. Defecation Defecation is the expulsion of feces from the anus and rectum or bowel movement. When peristaltic waves move the feces into the sigmoid colon and the rectum, the sensory nerves in the rectum are stimulated and the individual becomes a ware of the need of defecate.When the internal anal sphincter relaxes, feces move into the anal canal.

14. After the individual is seated on a toilet or bed pan, the external anal sphincter is relaxed voluntarily. Expulsion of the feces is assisted by contraction of the abdominal muscles and the diaphragm, which increases abdominal pressure, and by contraction of the muscles of pelvic floor, which moves the feces through the anal canal. Normal defecation is facilitated by : (a) Thigh flexion, which ↑ the pressure within the abdomen (b) A sitting position, which ↑ the downward pressure on the rectum.

15. Feces Normal feces are made of about 75%water and 25% solid materials. Feces are normally brown, chiefly due to the presence of stercobilin and Urobilin, which are derived from bilirubin ( area pigment in bile ). Bacteria action E-coli, staphylococci may affects fecal color, odor. An adult usually forms 7 to 10 L of flatus ( gas ) in the large intestine every 24 hours. The gases include carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

16. Factors that affect defecation   Development Newborns and infants Meconium is the first fecal material passed by the Newborns, normally up to 24hours after birth.It is ( black, tarry, odorless, and sticky ). Transitional stools, which follow for about a week ( greenish yellow ) they contain mucus and are loose. Infants who are breastfed have bright yellow to golden feces, infants who are taking cow’s milk formula will have dark yellow or tan stool that is more formed.

17. Toddlers Some control of defecation starts at 1½ to 2 years of age. Daytime control of defecation normally attained by age 2½, after a process of toilet training. School-age children and adolescents They have bowel habits similar to those of adults. Patterns of defecation vary in frequency, quantity, and consistency.

18. Elders Constipation is a common problem in the elder due to :-  Reduced activity levels.  In adequate amounts of fluid and fiber intake.  Muscle weakness.  Consistent use of laxatives inhibits natural defecation reflexes.

19. To resolve this problem, they educated to do :-  Adequate roughage in the diet.  Adequate exercise.  6 to 8 glasses of fluid daily.  A cup of hot water or tea at regular time in the morning is helpful for some.  Responding to the gastrocolic reflex

20.   Diet Sufficient bulk ( cellulose, fiber ) in the diet is necessary to provide fecal volume. Bland diets حمية لطيفة and low-fiber diets are lacking in bulk and therefore create insufficient residue of waste products to stimulate the reflex for defecation. Spicy foods can produce diarrhea and flatus in some individual..

21. Excessive sugar can also cause diarrhea. Gas-producing foods, such as cabbage, anions, bananas, apples. Laxative-producing foods, such as bran (نخالة), prunes الخوخ, figs,chocolate,alcohol.constipation-producing foods,such as cheese,pasta,eggs, and lean meat

22.   Fluid Even when fluid intake is inadequate or output (urine or vomitus ) is excessive for some reason, the body continues to reabsorb fluid from the chyme as it passes along the colon.The chyme becomes drier than normal resulting in hard feces. Healthy fecal elimination usually requires a daily fluid intake of 2000 to 3000 ml.

23.   Activity Activity stimulates peristalsis, thus facilitating the movement of chyme along the colon. Weak abdominal and pelvic muscles are often ineffective in increasing the intra- abdominal pressure during defecation or in controlling defecation. Weak muscles can result from lack of exercise, immobility or impaired neurologic functioning. Clients confined to bed are often constipated.

24.   Psychologic factors People who are anxious or angry experience increased peristaltic activity, and subsequent nausea, or diarrhea. People who are depressed may experience slowed intestinal motility, resulting in constipation.

25.   Defecation habits Early bowel training may establish the habit of defecating at regular time. Gastro colic reflex, increased peristalsis of the colon after food has entered the stomach. If person ignores the urge to defecate, water continues to be reabsorbed, making the feces hard and difficult to expel. When the normal defecation reflexes are inhibited or ignored, these conditional reflexes tend to be progressively weakened ( by time may lost ).

26.   Medications Some drugs have side effects that can interfere with normal elimination. Medication that cause constipation ( ↓ gastrointestinal activity ) :-   Codeine, repeated use of morphine, certain tranquilizers.   Iron tablets act more locally on the bowel mucosa. Some medications directly affect elimination :-   Laxatives.

27.  Laxatives are medications that stimulate bowel activity and so assist fecal elimination. Other medications soften stool, facilitating defecation. Certain medications suppress peristaltic activity and may be used to treat diarrhea.

28. Medications also affect the appearance of the feces :--- Aspirin products → can cause the stool to be red or black. Iron salts lead to black stool because of the oxidation of the iron. Antibiotics may cause gray-green discoloration. Antacids → whitish discoloration.

29.   Diagnostic procedures Colonoscopy, Sigmoidoscopy Prepare the client for these diagnostic procedures by :-   Keep NPO.   May given cleansing enema.   Anesthesia and surgery.

30. General anesthetics cause the normal colonic movements to cease or slow by blocking parasympathetic stimulation to the muscles of the colon. Clients who have regional or spinal anesthesia are less experience this problem. Surgery that involves direct handling of the intestines can cause temporary cessation of intestinal movement usually lasts 24 to 48 hours.( This condition called ileus)

31.   Pathologic conditions   Spinal cord injuries.   Head injuries.   Impaired mobility may limit the client’s ability to respond to the urge to defecate and the client may experience constipation..   Or the client may experience fecal incontinence because of poorly functioning anal sphincters. Decrease the sensory stimulation of defecation

32.  Pain Clients who experience discomfort when defecating. (e.g following hemorrhoid surgery) often suppress the urge to defecate to avoid the pain. Client taking analgesics, narcotic for pain may cause constipation as a side effect of these medication.

33. Fecal elimination problems 1) 1) Constipation May be defined as fewer than three bowel movement per week. This infers the passage of dry, hard stool or the passage of no stool. However, it is important to define constipation in relation to the person’s regular elimination pattern.

34. Sample defining characteristics for constipation:-   Decreased frequency of defecation.   Hard,dry, formed stools.   Painful defecation, straining at stool.   Reports of rectal fullness or incomplete bowel evacuation.   Abdominal pain, cramps, distention.   Headache, decreased appetite.

35. :- Causes and factors contribute to constipation :-   Insufficient fiber intake.   Insufficient fluid intake.   Insufficient activity.   Irregular defecation habits.   Change in daily routine.   Lack of privacy.   Chronic use of laxatives or enemas.   Medications such as opiates or iron salts.   Emotional disturbances such as depression.   Medications such as opioids, iron supplements, antihistamines.

36. Constipation can be hazardous to some client through straining and holding breath associated with constipation. Valsalva maneuver ( A maneuver in which a person tries to exhale forcibly with a closed glottis (the windpipe) so that no air exits through the mouth or nose as, for example, in strenuous coughing, straining during a bowel movement, or lifting a heavy weight. The Valsalva maneuver impedes the return of venous blood to the heart. ) can present serious problems to people with heart disease, brain injuries respiratory disease. Holding the breath increases the intrathoracic pressure and vagal tone, slowing the pulse rate..glottisnose

37. Fecal impaction Is a mass or collection of hardened feces in the folds of the rectum, result from prolonged retention and accumulation of fecal material. In severe impactions the feces accumulate and extend well up into sigmoid colon and beyond. Fecal impaction can be recognized by the passage of liquid fecal seepage ( diarrhea ) and no normal stool. Also fecal impaction can be assessed by digital examination of the rectum, during which the hardened mass can be often be palpated.

38. :- Symptoms include :-   Frequent but nonproductive desire to defecate.   Rectal pain.   Anorexic.   Distended abdomen.   Nausea and vomiting.

39. Causes of fecal impaction are : - - Poor defecation habits and constipation. - - Barium used in radiologic examinations of the upper and lower GI.

40. Preventive measure :-   Give the patient oil retention enema.   Cleansing enema 2 to 4 hours later and daily.   Suppositories.   Stool softeners.   If measures fail, digital manipulation and removal of fecal impaction.

42. 2) 2)Diarrhea The passage of liquid feces and an increased frequency of defecation. Result from rapid movement of fecal contents through the large intestine. Rapid passage of chyme reduces the time available for the large intestine to reabsorb water and electrolytes. The person with diarrhea find it difficult or impossible to control the urge to defecate for very long. Often, spasmodic cramps are associated with diarrhea. BS are ↑, anal irritation

43. Major causes of diarrhea Psychological stress ( e.g anxiety ). Medication. Antibiotics. Iron. Allergy of fluid, drugs, food. Intolerance of food or fluid. Diseases of the colon.

44. The result of prolonged diarrhea :-  Fatigue.  Weakness.  Malaise.  Irritation of the region extending to the perineum and buttocks.

45. 3) 3)Bowel incontinence Also called fecal incontinence refers to loss of voluntary ability to control fecal and gaseous discharges through the anal sphincter. They are two types of bowel incontinence ► Partial incontinence. in ability to control flatus or to prevent minor soiling ► Major incontinence in ability to control feces of normal consistency.

46. Causes - - Impaired functioning of the anal sphincter or its nerve supply, such as neuromuscular diseases, spinal cord trauma, tumors of the external anal sphincter muscle. Surgical procedures for the treatment of fecal incontinence:- * Repair of the sphincter. * Fecal diversion or colostomy.

47. 4) 4)Flatulence There are three primary sources of flatus :   Action of bacteria on the chyme in large intestine.   Swallowed air.   Gas that diffuses between the blood stream and the intestine. Flatulence :- Is the presence of excessive flatus in the intestines and leads to stretching and inflation of the intestines ( intestinal distention ).

48. Causes Foods ( onions, cabbage ). Abdominal surgery. Narcotics. Tx. If the gas can not expelled through the anus it may necessary to insert rectal tube to remove it.

49. Bowel diversion ostomies Ostomy is an opening for the gastro intestinal, urinary or respiratory tract onto the skin. There are many types of intestinal ostomies :- A gastrostomy is an opening through the abdominal wall into the stomach. A jejunostomy opens through the abdominal wall into the jejunum.

50. An ileostomy opens into the ileum ( small bowel ). A colostomy opens into the colon ( large bowel ). Gastrostomies and jejunostomies are generally performed to provide an alternate feeding route The purpose of bowel ostomies is to divert and drain fecal material.

51. Bowel diversion ostomies are often classified according to * Their status as permanent or temporary. * Their anatomic location. * Construction of the stoma, the opening created in the abdominal wall by the ostomy.

54. Permanence Colostomies can be either temporary or permanent ►temporary colostomies are generally performed for traumatic injuries or inflammatory conditions of the bowel. ►permanent colostomies are performed to provide a means of elimination when the rectum or anus is nonfunctional as a result of a birth defect or a disease such as cancer of the bowel.

55. Anatomic location   An ileostomy generally empties from the distal end of the small intestine.   A cecostomy empties from the cecum ( the first part of the a ascending colon.   Ascending colostomy empties from the ascending colon.   A descending colostomy from the descending colon.   A sigmoidostomy from the sigmoid colon.

56. The location of the ostomy influences the character and management of the fecal drainage. The farther along the bowel, the more formed the stool (because the large bowel reabsorbs water from the fecal mass ) and the more control over the frequency of stomal discharge can be established.

57.   An ileostomy produces liquid fecal drainage. Drainage is constant and can not be regulated, also the drainage contains some digestive enzymes, which are damaging to the skin,odor is minimal because fewer bacteria are present.   An ascending colostomy Drainage is liquid and can not be regulated, and digestive enzymes are present, odor is a problem requiring control.

58.   A transverse colostomy produces a malodorous, mushy drainage. There is usually no control.   A descending colostomy produces increasingly solid fecal drainage.   Sigmoidostomy stools are of normal or formed consistency, and the frequency of discharge can be regulated. People with a sigmoidostomy may not have to wear an appliance at all times, and odors can usually be controlled.

59. Construction of the stoma Stoma constructions are described as :-- Single stoma ( permanent stoma ) is created when one end of bowel is brought out through an opening onto the anterior abdominal wall. This is referred to as an end or terminal colostomy.

60. Loop colostomy loop of bowel is brought out onto the abdominal wall and supported by a plastic bridge. Loop stoma has two opening, the proximal or afferent end, which is active the distal or efferent end, which is inactive. Divided colostomy consists of two edges of bowel brought out onto the abdomen but separated from each other.

61. Loop colostomy

62. The divided colostomy is often used in situations where spillage of feces into the distal end of the bowel need to be avoided. Double-barreled colostomy ( double-barreled shotgun ) the proximal and distal loop of bowel are sutured together for about 10cm and both ends are brought up onto the abdominal wall.

66. Nursing management   Assessing Assessment of fecal elimination includes :----   Nursing history.   Physical examination.   Inspection the feces observe the client’s stool for color, consistency, shape, amount odor, and the presence of abnormal constituents.

67.   Diagnostic studies include direct visualization techniques, indirect visualization techniques ( stool analysis, stool culture ).   Diagnosing NANDA includes the following diagnostic labels for fecal elimination problems :---- Bowel incontinence. Constipation. Risk for constipation. Diarrhea.

68.   Planning Maintain or restore normal bowel elimination pattern. Maintain or regain normal stool consistency. Prevent associated risks such as fluid and electrolyte imbalance, skin break down, abdominal distention and pain.

69. Implementing 1. 1. Promoting regular defecation   Privacy.   Timing.   Nutrition and fluids For constipation. For diarrhea. For flatulence   Positioning.   Excercise

70. 2. 2.Teaching about medications Cathartics and laxatives Cathartics are drugs that induce defecation (castor oil, cascara ). Laxative is mild, and it produces soft or liquid stools. Laxatives are contraindicated in the client who has nausea, cramps, colic, vomiting, or undiagnosed abdominal pain. Continual use of laxative, resulting in chronic constipation.

71. Some laxatives are given in the form of suppositories. Their action are :-------   Softening the feces.   Releasing gases such as carbon dioxide to distend the rectum.   Stimulating the nerve endings in the rectal mucosa. Antidiarrheal medications Action ► slow the motility of the intestine or absorb excess fluid in the intestine.

72. Anti flatulent medications e.g Carminatives (طارد للغازات herbal oils known to act as agents that help expel gas from the stomach and intestines. There are a number of ways to reduce or expel flatus including avoiding gas-producing foods, exercise, moving in bed and ambulation. Finally. Insertion of a rectal tube.

73. A dministering enemas Enemas is a solution introduced into the rectum and large intestine. The action of an enema is to distend the intestine and sometimes to irritate the intestinal mucosa, thereby ↑ peristalsis and the excretion of feces and flatus. Enemas are classified into four groups: - - Cleansing enemas - - Carminative enema - - Retention enema - - Return flow enema

75. Ostomy management Stoma and skin care The fecal material from a colostomy or ileostomy is irritating to the peristomal skin. Odor control is essential to client’s self-esteem Disposable ostomy appliances can be applied for up to 10 days.