2. The Great War World War I August 1914-November 1918

3. The Beginning The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Bosnia (June 28, 1914) was the spark that ignited the “European powder keg.” The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Bosnia (June 28, 1914) was the spark that ignited the “European powder keg.”

4. The Beginning The assassination immediately triggered an interlocking series of European alliances. Germany immediately backed Austria- Hungary, who threatened to attack Serbia. Serbia appealed to her ally Russia for help. The assassination immediately triggered an interlocking series of European alliances. Germany immediately backed Austria- Hungary, who threatened to attack Serbia. Serbia appealed to her ally Russia for help.

5. Resources of the Combatants On paper, the Allies had an overwhelming advantage in people and resources. On paper, the Allies had an overwhelming advantage in people and resources. The Central Powers had a population of about 150 million people. The Central Powers had a population of about 150 million people. The Allies had nearly double that number + over 325 million people in their colonies (like India). The Allies had nearly double that number + over 325 million people in their colonies (like India).

6. French Soldiers

7. Resources of the Combatants The winner of this conflict would be the side with the most men and material, the one able to win through wearing the other side down (attrition). The winner of this conflict would be the side with the most men and material, the one able to win through wearing the other side down (attrition). But the Central Powers had some important advantages the Allies did not possess. But the Central Powers had some important advantages the Allies did not possess.

8. Resources of the Central Powers Germany and Austria were adjoined to one another and had interior lines of communication, which enabled them to transfer troops from one spot to another quickly and efficiently. Germany and Austria were adjoined to one another and had interior lines of communication, which enabled them to transfer troops from one spot to another quickly and efficiently. The Germans and the Austrians spoke the same language and had for many years been firmly allied with each other. The Germans and the Austrians spoke the same language and had for many years been firmly allied with each other. Most importantly, Germany was READY for war, with a well organized military machine and a good stock of munitions. Most importantly, Germany was READY for war, with a well organized military machine and a good stock of munitions.

9. German Soldiers

10. Resources of the Central Powers When food supplies ran low, German scientists created ersatz, or artificial food substitutes, because their chemical industry was superior to that of the Allies. When food supplies ran low, German scientists created ersatz, or artificial food substitutes, because their chemical industry was superior to that of the Allies. The German people were united in their support of the war, and they had the psychological advantage of being on the offensive (or taking the war to the enemy). The German people were united in their support of the war, and they had the psychological advantage of being on the offensive (or taking the war to the enemy). No important part of the war was fought on German soil, and when the war ended, the German army was still intact and Germany had not been invaded. No important part of the war was fought on German soil, and when the war ended, the German army was still intact and Germany had not been invaded.

11. The Central Powers

12. Resources of the Allies In contrast to the advantages of Germany and Austria, geography and language separated the western Allies from each other and Russia. In contrast to the advantages of Germany and Austria, geography and language separated the western Allies from each other and Russia. German control of the Baltic Sea and Ottoman control of the Dardanelles made communication between Russia and her allies very difficult. German control of the Baltic Sea and Ottoman control of the Dardanelles made communication between Russia and her allies very difficult.

13. Resources of the Allies For the Allies, transferring troops between the Western and Eastern Fronts was militarily impossible, creating a major weakness. For the Allies, transferring troops between the Western and Eastern Fronts was militarily impossible, creating a major weakness. Russia, Britain, and France had only recently come together, and not as close allies. Each had problems with the others. Russia, Britain, and France had only recently come together, and not as close allies. Each had problems with the others.

14. Resources of the Allies The Allies had little experience in mutual cooperation with each other and no common language. The Allies had little experience in mutual cooperation with each other and no common language. France and Britain were democracies, and Russia was autocratic. France and Britain were democracies, and Russia was autocratic. Of the three great Allies in 1914, only France was prepared for war. But France’s 39 million people were against Germany’s 65 million, making France the weakest in manpower. Of the three great Allies in 1914, only France was prepared for war. But France’s 39 million people were against Germany’s 65 million, making France the weakest in manpower.

15. Resources of the Allies Britain was well prepared on the sea, but the British navy was not going to be much use against the German army. Britain was well prepared on the sea, but the British navy was not going to be much use against the German army. Russia had a large army, but it was the least industrialized country and it was riddled with inefficiency and corruption. Russia had a large army, but it was the least industrialized country and it was riddled with inefficiency and corruption.

16. Russian Soldiers

17. Position of the United States The United States remained neutral. When war broke out, the U.S. was determined to avoid being dragged into the conflict. The United States remained neutral. When war broke out, the U.S. was determined to avoid being dragged into the conflict. American wartime xenophobia: British (and then American) propaganda showed the Germans to be evil. American wartime xenophobia: British (and then American) propaganda showed the Germans to be evil.

18. Position of the United States The 1910 U.S. census revealed that one in three Americans was foreign born or had foreign born parents. The 1910 U.S. census revealed that one in three Americans was foreign born or had foreign born parents. Over 10 million Americans came from Germany or Austria-Hungary. Over 10 million Americans came from Germany or Austria-Hungary. Many more millions were Irish (who hated the British). So American feelings about the war were mixed. Many more millions were Irish (who hated the British). So American feelings about the war were mixed.

19. Position of the United States But the majority of Americans strongly supported the Allies. But the majority of Americans strongly supported the Allies. Germany had an international reputation for aggressive, militaristic, autocratic behavior. Germany had an international reputation for aggressive, militaristic, autocratic behavior. In the U.S., many colleges stopped offering German as a language. German street names were “Americanized.” Children no longer got the German measles, they had “liberty” measles. The family Dachshund became the “liberty” dog. In the U.S., many colleges stopped offering German as a language. German street names were “Americanized.” Children no longer got the German measles, they had “liberty” measles. The family Dachshund became the “liberty” dog.

20. Position of the United States Prior to 1917, even though the U.S. was officially neutral, many young Americans formed fighting units such as the Lafayette Escadrille, who volunteered for service in France. Prior to 1917, even though the U.S. was officially neutral, many young Americans formed fighting units such as the Lafayette Escadrille, who volunteered for service in France.

21. The Beginning of the Great War Fearing a battle with Russia in the east and France in the west, Germany stormed through neutral Belgium to attack France, hoping that a quick strike would eliminate them from the war (the von Schlieffen Plan). Fearing a battle with Russia in the east and France in the west, Germany stormed through neutral Belgium to attack France, hoping that a quick strike would eliminate them from the war (the von Schlieffen Plan).

22. The Beginning of the Great War The Germans wanted to quickly eliminate the French so they could concentrate on the Eastern Front with Russia. The Germans wanted to quickly eliminate the French so they could concentrate on the Eastern Front with Russia. When the Germans went through Belgium, Britain feared a possible invasion and set up a naval blockade of the English Channel, blocking German trade (mainly with the U.S.). When the Germans went through Belgium, Britain feared a possible invasion and set up a naval blockade of the English Channel, blocking German trade (mainly with the U.S.).

23. The Beginning of the Great War The Germans retaliated by attacking British shipping and the war quickly escalated. The Germans retaliated by attacking British shipping and the war quickly escalated. By August 6, 1914, when Austria- Hungary declared war on Russia, all the members of the Triple Alliance and all the Triple Entente had entered the war, with the exception of Italy (and the United States which had declared neutrality). By August 6, 1914, when Austria- Hungary declared war on Russia, all the members of the Triple Alliance and all the Triple Entente had entered the war, with the exception of Italy (and the United States which had declared neutrality).

24. The Great War (the Combatants) The Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary stood against the Allies—Britain, France, Russia, and Serbia. The Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary stood against the Allies—Britain, France, Russia, and Serbia. Turkey (The Ottoman Empire) joined the Central Powers in November. Turkey (The Ottoman Empire) joined the Central Powers in November. Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in 1915, and Portugal and Romania on the side of the Allies in 1916. Bulgaria joined the Central Powers in 1915, and Portugal and Romania on the side of the Allies in 1916.

25. The Great War (the Combatants) Japan, wanting to be recognized as a major power and hoping to remove Germany from Far Eastern possessions, came in on the side of the Allies in late August. Japan, wanting to be recognized as a major power and hoping to remove Germany from Far Eastern possessions, came in on the side of the Allies in late August. Italy received competing territorial offers from both sides and decided to leave the Central Powers and join the Allies in May 1915. Italy received competing territorial offers from both sides and decided to leave the Central Powers and join the Allies in May 1915.

26. The Great War (the Combatants) The United States officially entered in April 1917 but didn’t have a sizable troop presence until June 1918. The United States officially entered in April 1917 but didn’t have a sizable troop presence until June 1918. By the time the war ended in 1918, there were fifty-six declarations of war, making this the first truly global, or “world war.” By the time the war ended in 1918, there were fifty-six declarations of war, making this the first truly global, or “world war.”

27. The Great War In August 1914 Kaiser Wilhelm II promised his troops “you will be home before the leaves have fallen from the trees” reflecting the universal feeling that this was going to be a quick and glorious war. In August 1914 Kaiser Wilhelm II promised his troops “you will be home before the leaves have fallen from the trees” reflecting the universal feeling that this was going to be a quick and glorious war.

28. The Great War The French were able to stop the first German land push in September 1914 (First Battle of the Marne). As the Germans retreated, they didn’t want to give up French/Belgian territory already captured so they dug in. The French and British did the same thing, and fighting soon ground into trench warfare. The French were able to stop the first German land push in September 1914 (First Battle of the Marne). As the Germans retreated, they didn’t want to give up French/Belgian territory already captured so they dug in. The French and British did the same thing, and fighting soon ground into trench warfare. The war quickly became anything but glamorous. The war quickly became anything but glamorous.

29. The Great War The French behind a ditch at the Battle of the Marne. The French behind a ditch at the Battle of the Marne.

30. The Great War In saving Paris from capture by pushing the Germans back some 45 miles, the First Battle of the Marne was a great strategic victory, because it enabled the French to continue the war. In saving Paris from capture by pushing the Germans back some 45 miles, the First Battle of the Marne was a great strategic victory, because it enabled the French to continue the war. However, the Germans succeeded in capturing a large part of the industrial north east of France, which was a serious blow. However, the Germans succeeded in capturing a large part of the industrial north east of France, which was a serious blow.

31. The Trenches on the Western Front Trench warfare ground the war to a stalemate. At first the trenches were just quickly dug ditches, but as the stalemate continued, huge networks of defensive fortifications were built, stretching nearly 400 miles from the English Channel to the Swiss border. Trench warfare ground the war to a stalemate. At first the trenches were just quickly dug ditches, but as the stalemate continued, huge networks of defensive fortifications were built, stretching nearly 400 miles from the English Channel to the Swiss border.

32. Trench Warfare on the Western Front Trenches went from being simple ditches (early in the war) to elaborate fortifications. Trenches went from being simple ditches (early in the war) to elaborate fortifications. Trench builders designed parapets, machine gun nests, and an elaborate network of approach trenches. Soon, the entire Western Front was one giant fortification. Trench builders designed parapets, machine gun nests, and an elaborate network of approach trenches. Soon, the entire Western Front was one giant fortification. Thousands of local actions in four years shifted the lines here and there, but on the whole, the lines held. Thousands of local actions in four years shifted the lines here and there, but on the whole, the lines held.

33. The Trench System

34. Front line trenches These were usually about seven feet deep and about six feet wide. The Allies were forced to dig their trenches in lower ground so they were often waterlogged. These were usually about seven feet deep and about six feet wide. The Allies were forced to dig their trenches in lower ground so they were often waterlogged. British soldiers called them “suicide ditches.” British soldiers called them “suicide ditches.”

35. The Trench System Trenches had a zigzag pattern to prevent the enemy from shooting straight down the line. Sandbags were put on both sides of the top of the trench to absorb enemy bullets. Lines of barbed wire protected the frontline trench from any enemy attacks. Trenches had a zigzag pattern to prevent the enemy from shooting straight down the line. Sandbags were put on both sides of the top of the trench to absorb enemy bullets. Lines of barbed wire protected the frontline trench from any enemy attacks.

36. Front Line Trenches

37. The Trench System Fire step This was cut into the side of the trench and allowed the soldiers to peer over the side of the trench towards the enemy. Fire step This was cut into the side of the trench and allowed the soldiers to peer over the side of the trench towards the enemy. It was where the sentries or the whole unit stood when they were on 'standing-to' duty which meant that they were waiting for a possible enemy attack. It was where the sentries or the whole unit stood when they were on 'standing-to' duty which meant that they were waiting for a possible enemy attack.

38. The Trench System Linking the front-line trench to the support and reserve trenches. They allowed the movement of men, equipment and supplies and were also used to take the wounded back to the Casualty Clearing Stations. Communications trenches: Linking the front-line trench to the support and reserve trenches. They allowed the movement of men, equipment and supplies and were also used to take the wounded back to the Casualty Clearing Stations.

39. Communications Trench

40. The Trench System No-Man's Land The land that separated the Allied and the German trenches was a wasteland of barbed wire, shell craters, blackened tree stumps and the occasional shell of a building. No-Man's Land The land that separated the Allied and the German trenches was a wasteland of barbed wire, shell craters, blackened tree stumps and the occasional shell of a building. It was normally around 250 yards but could vary between 7 yards at Zonnebeke (Belgium) to 500 yards at Cambrai (Northern France). It was normally around 250 yards but could vary between 7 yards at Zonnebeke (Belgium) to 500 yards at Cambrai (Northern France).

41. No-Man's Land

43. Life in the Trenches Life in the trenches was a series of horrors as men had to deal with the cold, rain, heat, rats bloated from chewing on corpses, lice crawling all over their skin, noise from artillery shells, snipers, the stench of raw sewage and rotting flesh, and mud. Life in the trenches was a series of horrors as men had to deal with the cold, rain, heat, rats bloated from chewing on corpses, lice crawling all over their skin, noise from artillery shells, snipers, the stench of raw sewage and rotting flesh, and mud.

44. The Trench System As one soldier recalled, “The men slept in mud, washed in mud, ate mud, and dreamed mud.”  The anxiety of being in a front line trench was so great, armies were constantly rotating soldiers from the reserve trenches in order to reduce mental burnout.

45. Trench Warfare And a new psychological disorder was documented: shell shock, which rendered some men blind, some deaf, and some totally paralyzed. And a new psychological disorder was documented: shell shock, which rendered some men blind, some deaf, and some totally paralyzed.

46. Life in the Trenches Soldiers were fairly well protected in the trenches, but unfortunately both sides insisted on periodically sending their armies “over the top” into “no man’s land” to assault enemy trenches. Soldiers were fairly well protected in the trenches, but unfortunately both sides insisted on periodically sending their armies “over the top” into “no man’s land” to assault enemy trenches. These were often little more than suicide missions as soldiers got caught on the barbed wire, hit land mines, or were cut down by machine gun fire. Often where you fell became your final resting place. These were often little more than suicide missions as soldiers got caught on the barbed wire, hit land mines, or were cut down by machine gun fire. Often where you fell became your final resting place.

47. Life in the Trenches Going “over the top.” Going “over the top.”

48. The Christmas Truce (1914) Freezing rain in November and December 1914 left both sides struggling with flooded trenches and appalling conditions. Freezing rain in November and December 1914 left both sides struggling with flooded trenches and appalling conditions. This led to a “live and let live” arrangement along much of the northern sector of the Western Front, especially between British and German troops. This led to a “live and let live” arrangement along much of the northern sector of the Western Front, especially between British and German troops.

49. The Christmas Truce December 24 brought a frost, hardening the ground (and temporarily stopping the smell of decomposing bodies). December 24 brought a frost, hardening the ground (and temporarily stopping the smell of decomposing bodies). The Germans placed lighted Christmas trees along their trenches and soldiers on both sides sang carols to each other. The Germans placed lighted Christmas trees along their trenches and soldiers on both sides sang carols to each other. Christmas morning when the fog lifted, the frost-covered trees glistened in the sunlight. Christmas morning when the fog lifted, the frost-covered trees glistened in the sunlight.

50. The Christmas Truce

51. German troops during the Christmas Truce. German troops during the Christmas Truce.

52. The Christmas Truce All firing stopped. Men moved into No Man’s Land. Gifts were exchanged (chocolate, tobacco, and cigarettes) and both sides buried their dead. All firing stopped. Men moved into No Man’s Land. Gifts were exchanged (chocolate, tobacco, and cigarettes) and both sides buried their dead. Soldiers played soccer…their hostility temporarily forgotten. Soldiers played soccer…their hostility temporarily forgotten. Allied commanders insisted that such an event should never recur. Allied commanders insisted that such an event should never recur. In the future, orders were given to shoot anyone caught trying to fraternize with the enemy. In the future, orders were given to shoot anyone caught trying to fraternize with the enemy.

53. The Christmas Truce

54. Weapons of Mass Destruction Poison Gas Poison Gas Flamethrowers Flamethrowers Zeppelins Zeppelins Airplanes Airplanes Tanks Tanks Cannons Cannons Machine Guns Machine Guns Submarines Submarines

55. Poison Gas It is generally believed that the Germans were the first to use gas in World War I, but it was actually the French (in August 1914). It is generally believed that the Germans were the first to use gas in World War I, but it was actually the French (in August 1914). They threw tear gas grenades to try to slow the German advance…not deadly, but an irritant. They threw tear gas grenades to try to slow the German advance…not deadly, but an irritant.

56. Poison Gas In October 1914 the Germans fired gas shells at the French that caused violent sneezing fits.In October 1914 the Germans fired gas shells at the French that caused violent sneezing fits. The gas wasn’t designed to kill, it was supposed to incapacitate the enemy so they couldn’t hold their positions.The gas wasn’t designed to kill, it was supposed to incapacitate the enemy so they couldn’t hold their positions.

57. Poison Gas Once both sides had literally dug into the trench system, they looked for a way to bring movement back to their campaigns. Once both sides had literally dug into the trench system, they looked for a way to bring movement back to their campaigns. Both sides wanted to develop a weapon so appalling that it would not only destroy the enemy front line, but also the will to maintain troops on that frontline. Both sides wanted to develop a weapon so appalling that it would not only destroy the enemy front line, but also the will to maintain troops on that frontline. It was thought poison gas might even provoke a mutiny on the enemy frontline causing it to collapse. It was thought poison gas might even provoke a mutiny on the enemy frontline causing it to collapse.

58. Poison Gas While trying to break the stalemate (Second Battle of Ypres in April 1915), Germany introduced poison gas (chlorine) against the French and their Algerian comrades. While trying to break the stalemate (Second Battle of Ypres in April 1915), Germany introduced poison gas (chlorine) against the French and their Algerian comrades. When French sentries saw the yellow- green gas they thought the Germans had created a smokescreen to hide their troop movement. When French sentries saw the yellow- green gas they thought the Germans had created a smokescreen to hide their troop movement. The French were ordered to the firing line of their trench…the exact path of the chlorine gas. The French were ordered to the firing line of their trench…the exact path of the chlorine gas.

59. Poison Gas When the gas hit the French line, the men fled in terror gasping for air (it burned the throat and lungs and you could die of asphyxiation) and the Germans had an easy time capturing territory. When the gas hit the French line, the men fled in terror gasping for air (it burned the throat and lungs and you could die of asphyxiation) and the Germans had an easy time capturing territory. Now other nations that had a petrochemical industry could make poison gases and blame the Germans for starting it. Now other nations that had a petrochemical industry could make poison gases and blame the Germans for starting it. Soon gas warfare was used by both sides. Soon gas warfare was used by both sides.

60. Poison Gas A German Medic prepared for a gas attack. A German Medic prepared for a gas attack. A German messenger dog. A German messenger dog.

61. Poison Gas In September 1915, responding to the first German gas attack in April, the British formed “Special Gas Companies” that also used chlorine gas. In September 1915, responding to the first German gas attack in April, the British formed “Special Gas Companies” that also used chlorine gas. British soldiers weren’t allowed to call it gas…it was referred to as an “accessory.” British soldiers weren’t allowed to call it gas…it was referred to as an “accessory.” They launched their canisters at the German lines but the wind shifted… causing 2,000 British casualties and 7 deaths. They launched their canisters at the German lines but the wind shifted… causing 2,000 British casualties and 7 deaths.

62. Poison Gas

63. Phosgene and mustard gas quickly followed. Military technicians quickly countered with the improved gas masks. Phosgene and mustard gas quickly followed. Military technicians quickly countered with the improved gas masks.

64. Poison Gas Phosgene gas (18 times more powerful than chlorine) had little immediate effect on soldiers, but within 24-48 hours, you would be incapacitated. Phosgene gas (18 times more powerful than chlorine) had little immediate effect on soldiers, but within 24-48 hours, you would be incapacitated. It also caused a painful death from asphyxiation. It also caused a painful death from asphyxiation.

65. Poison Gas The most lethal was mustard gas (it smelled like mustard), which blistered the body inside and out and mucous membranes were stripped off the bronchial tubes. The most lethal was mustard gas (it smelled like mustard), which blistered the body inside and out and mucous membranes were stripped off the bronchial tubes. The Germans first used it against the Russians in September 1917. The Germans first used it against the Russians in September 1917. The pain was almost unendurable and could last for five weeks. The pain was almost unendurable and could last for five weeks. If you survived, your body was forever scarred and you were often blinded. If you survived, your body was forever scarred and you were often blinded.

66. Poison Gas

67. In one ten day period, the Germans fired over 1,000,000 shells containing over 2,500 tons of mustard gas at the Allies. In one ten day period, the Germans fired over 1,000,000 shells containing over 2,500 tons of mustard gas at the Allies. The British would use mustard gas at the end of the war (Hitler was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack less than a month before the armistice). The British would use mustard gas at the end of the war (Hitler was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack less than a month before the armistice).

68. Poison Gas Victims of mustard gas. Victims of mustard gas.

69. Poison Gas and Chemical War While gas masks cut down on the casualties from gas attacks, gas was another sign that modern warfare had become an increasingly inhumane business. While gas masks cut down on the casualties from gas attacks, gas was another sign that modern warfare had become an increasingly inhumane business. Gas also added a new element of fear to warfare. Gas also added a new element of fear to warfare. By the end of the war, 91,000 men had been killed and 1.3 million had been wounded by gas. By the end of the war, 91,000 men had been killed and 1.3 million had been wounded by gas.

70. A Gas Attack

71. The Flamethrower Another German chemical “innovation” was the flamethrower. It could send a stream of flames 25-30 yards and incinerate anything in its path. Another German chemical “innovation” was the flamethrower. It could send a stream of flames 25-30 yards and incinerate anything in its path.

72. The Flamethrower The Germans had been developing flamethrowers (Flammenwefer) since 1900 and had three specialist battalions since 1911. The Germans had been developing flamethrowers (Flammenwefer) since 1900 and had three specialist battalions since 1911. Initially used against the French, then the British, 6-man teams would clear forward defenders at the start of a German attack. Initially used against the French, then the British, 6-man teams would clear forward defenders at the start of a German attack. There were 650 known German attacks with flamethrowers but it is unknown how many soldiers were killed by this weapon. There were 650 known German attacks with flamethrowers but it is unknown how many soldiers were killed by this weapon.

73. Troops using a flamethrower The insignia of German soldiers who used flamethrowers. They were despised and never taken prisoner. The insignia of German soldiers who used flamethrowers. They were despised and never taken prisoner.

74. Zeppelins World War I saw the beginning of air warfare. World War I saw the beginning of air warfare. Nearly all combatants had some form of airship—essentially powered balloons. Nearly all combatants had some form of airship—essentially powered balloons. Most were used for surveillance and reconnaissance. Most were used for surveillance and reconnaissance.

75. Zeppelins German dirigibles (known as Zeppelins) were the best (and most famous). German dirigibles (known as Zeppelins) were the best (and most famous). They could quickly climb to an altitude beyond most fighters (over 10,000 ft), and their bomb carrying capacity was greater than any airplane. They could quickly climb to an altitude beyond most fighters (over 10,000 ft), and their bomb carrying capacity was greater than any airplane.

76. Zeppelins Zeppelins raided London and the English coastline 52 times, starting in January 1915. Zeppelins raided London and the English coastline 52 times, starting in January 1915. Over a two year period, more than 500 people were killed by the bombs dropped by the Zeppelins. Over a two year period, more than 500 people were killed by the bombs dropped by the Zeppelins.

77. Zeppelins Overall, they didn’t do much damage but they scared a lot of people.Overall, they didn’t do much damage but they scared a lot of people. They had a rigid steel frame and were filled with highly flammable hydrogen gas (an obvious problem for a slow- moving target).They had a rigid steel frame and were filled with highly flammable hydrogen gas (an obvious problem for a slow- moving target).

78. Aircraft of World War I Airplanes also made their debut in World War I. Airplanes also made their debut in World War I. Less than twelve years after their invention, planes were used mainly to scout enemy positions, especially artillery positions. Less than twelve years after their invention, planes were used mainly to scout enemy positions, especially artillery positions.

79. Aircraft of World War I Initially, pilots had to shoot at enemy airplanes with hand pistols or rifles because engineers hadn’t figured out how to mount and shoot a machine gun without ripping up the plane’s propeller. Initially, pilots had to shoot at enemy airplanes with hand pistols or rifles because engineers hadn’t figured out how to mount and shoot a machine gun without ripping up the plane’s propeller.

80. Aircraft of World War I Once that was figured out, machine guns were mounted in front of the pilot. In some two-seat planes, guns were also mounted at the rear. Once that was figured out, machine guns were mounted in front of the pilot. In some two-seat planes, guns were also mounted at the rear. During the war, the average life expectancy for a pilot was about two months. Many went into battle with less than 18 hours of flight time under their belts. During the war, the average life expectancy for a pilot was about two months. Many went into battle with less than 18 hours of flight time under their belts. By 1917, the life expectancy for a British pilot was down to 11 days. By 1917, the life expectancy for a British pilot was down to 11 days.

81. Aircraft of World War I This is the British B.E. 2 called “The Quirk” because it was hard to maneuver. This plane carried most of the burden of photographing German trenches for the first two years of the war. Max speed: 72mph. This is the British B.E. 2 called “The Quirk” because it was hard to maneuver. This plane carried most of the burden of photographing German trenches for the first two years of the war. Max speed: 72mph.

82. Aircraft of World War I This is the German Aviatik C.1. Starting in 1915, it became the principal German plane for air reconnaissance. Max speed: 89mph. This is the German Aviatik C.1. Starting in 1915, it became the principal German plane for air reconnaissance. Max speed: 89mph.

83. Aircraft of World War I This is one of the most famous planes of WWI: the British Sopwith Camel. This is one of the most famous planes of WWI: the British Sopwith Camel. The Sopwith Camel shot down the most enemy aircraft for the Allies. Top speed 113 mph. The Sopwith Camel shot down the most enemy aircraft for the Allies. Top speed 113 mph.

84. Aircraft of World War I The German Fokker. Germany’s best plane in a dogfight. Flown by the “Red Baron” and his “Flying Circus” squadron, they had over 300 Allied kills. The German Fokker. Germany’s best plane in a dogfight. Flown by the “Red Baron” and his “Flying Circus” squadron, they had over 300 Allied kills.

85. The Red Baron Baron Manfred von Richthofen (the infamous “Red Baron”) had over 80 kills before being shot down (April 1918). He was the most successful fighter pilot of the war (and Snoopy’s arch-enemy). Baron Manfred von Richthofen (the infamous “Red Baron”) had over 80 kills before being shot down (April 1918). He was the most successful fighter pilot of the war (and Snoopy’s arch-enemy).

86. Aircraft of World War I Because the Zeppelin raids hadn’t changed the course of the war, the Germans began using the Staaken as a long-range bomber of civilian targets. They could carry over 4,000 lbs. of bombs. Because the Zeppelin raids hadn’t changed the course of the war, the Germans began using the Staaken as a long-range bomber of civilian targets. They could carry over 4,000 lbs. of bombs.

87. Aircraft of World War I The British counterpart to the Staaken was the Hadley Page 0/400. Top speed: 97 mph. It could carry 2,000 lbs. of bombs. The British counterpart to the Staaken was the Hadley Page 0/400. Top speed: 97 mph. It could carry 2,000 lbs. of bombs.

88. Aircraft of World War I Airplanes did not alter the course of the war, but they did lay the groundwork for the development of a modern air force, as most military strategists realized their future potential. Airplanes did not alter the course of the war, but they did lay the groundwork for the development of a modern air force, as most military strategists realized their future potential.

89. Varieties of WWI Aircraft

90. The Tank Unlike the airplane, another new weapon, an armored land battleship called the tank, came closer to decisive success. Invented by the British (1916), the tank was rushed into battle too soon, in small numbers, and before mechanical tests could be completed. Unlike the airplane, another new weapon, an armored land battleship called the tank, came closer to decisive success. Invented by the British (1916), the tank was rushed into battle too soon, in small numbers, and before mechanical tests could be completed.

91. The Tank Tanks were known as “Land Battleships” and ‘The Chariots of God.’ Tanks were known as “Land Battleships” and ‘The Chariots of God.’ At first, they were giant blocks of metal that could only carry 1-2 men and travel at about 4 miles per hour. At first, they were giant blocks of metal that could only carry 1-2 men and travel at about 4 miles per hour.

92. Tanks Although these beasts were powerful, they were not very reliable. Most broke down and a good example is the battle of Amiens. The British sent 525 tanks, and after four days, only 25 were left in working order. Although these beasts were powerful, they were not very reliable. Most broke down and a good example is the battle of Amiens. The British sent 525 tanks, and after four days, only 25 were left in working order.

93. Tanks By 1917, Allied tanks had been improved to the point where 300 broke through the German lines at the Battle of Cambrai (in northern France). By 1917, Allied tanks had been improved to the point where 300 broke through the German lines at the Battle of Cambrai (in northern France).

94. Tanks But scientists and engineers kept making new and improved tanks and by 1918 the Anglo-American Mark VIII “Liberty” could carry 8-12 men, fire 208 shells and up to 13,000 bullets. It remained in service until 1934. Top speed: 6.5 mph. But scientists and engineers kept making new and improved tanks and by 1918 the Anglo-American Mark VIII “Liberty” could carry 8-12 men, fire 208 shells and up to 13,000 bullets. It remained in service until 1934. Top speed: 6.5 mph.

95. Tanks The Renault (French) tank…the first to have a gun turret. The Renault (French) tank…the first to have a gun turret. The German A7V7 (Germany’s only WWI tank entered the war Spring 1918). The German A7V7 (Germany’s only WWI tank entered the war Spring 1918).

96. Field Artillery Never in the history of humankind, were there so many pieces of artillery used in one war. Between 1914-1918, the British alone fired over 170 million shells. Never in the history of humankind, were there so many pieces of artillery used in one war. Between 1914-1918, the British alone fired over 170 million shells.

97. Field Artillery For years, German scientists were busy developing the biggest artillery pieces ever known. For years, German scientists were busy developing the biggest artillery pieces ever known. The biggest was called the “Paris Gun.” The biggest was called the “Paris Gun.” The “Paris Gun” was so powerful, it could fire at the heart of Paris from over 75 miles away (Coriolis effect). The “Paris Gun” was so powerful, it could fire at the heart of Paris from over 75 miles away (Coriolis effect).

98. Field Artillery The Paris Gun fired a 210 lbs shell from its 92 ft. barrel. The Paris Gun fired a 210 lbs shell from its 92 ft. barrel. The shell could go 81 miles and hit an altitude of 25 miles (the greatest height a human-made projectile reached until the “V” rockets of WWII). The shell could go 81 miles and hit an altitude of 25 miles (the greatest height a human-made projectile reached until the “V” rockets of WWII).

99. Field Artillery The Germans used it towards the end of the war (March-August 1918). The Germans used it towards the end of the war (March-August 1918). A total of approx 350 shells were fired (no more than 20 a day), killing about 250 people and wounding about 620. A total of approx 350 shells were fired (no more than 20 a day), killing about 250 people and wounding about 620. It was more a psychological weapon than a tactical one. It was more a psychological weapon than a tactical one.

100. Field Artillery The German “Big Bertha” was the world’s largest and most powerful siege gun. The German “Big Bertha” was the world’s largest and most powerful siege gun. Only four were ever produced, but all four saw action in the war. Only four were ever produced, but all four saw action in the war. They were used to destroy forts and bombard cities. They were used to destroy forts and bombard cities.

101. Field Artillery Transported by railroad flat cars or by Daimler-Benz tractors, it took a 200-man crew over six hours to re- assemble the “Big Bertha” on site. Transported by railroad flat cars or by Daimler-Benz tractors, it took a 200-man crew over six hours to re- assemble the “Big Bertha” on site. The “Big Bertha” could fire a shell weighing 2200 lbs almost 10 miles. The “Big Bertha” could fire a shell weighing 2200 lbs almost 10 miles.

102. Field Artillery The Austrian Skoda Howitzer was designed to be road-transportable. The Austrian Skoda Howitzer was designed to be road-transportable. It took a crew of 12, and could be assembled on site in as little as 40 minutes. It took a crew of 12, and could be assembled on site in as little as 40 minutes. It fired an 850 lbs shell about 7.5 miles. It fired an 850 lbs shell about 7.5 miles.

103. Field Artillery Artillery was not only thing that had been improved. The shells were upgraded as well. Instead of ordinary shells, new high- explosive shells were developed. Artillery was not only thing that had been improved. The shells were upgraded as well. Instead of ordinary shells, new high- explosive shells were developed. The shells were thin casings and were filled with tiny lead pellets. This was so effective, that artillery fire killed hundreds of thousands of men. The shells were thin casings and were filled with tiny lead pellets. This was so effective, that artillery fire killed hundreds of thousands of men.

104. Machine Guns During World War I the effectiveness of the machine gun reached frightening new levels. During World War I the effectiveness of the machine gun reached frightening new levels. Firing up to 600 bullets a minute (the equivalent of 250 men with rifles), machine guns were then deemed to be ‘weapons of mass destruction’. Firing up to 600 bullets a minute (the equivalent of 250 men with rifles), machine guns were then deemed to be ‘weapons of mass destruction’.

105. Machine Guns When the war began, the Germans had over 12,000 machine guns (it ballooned to over 100,000), the Allies only a few hundred. When the war began, the Germans had over 12,000 machine guns (it ballooned to over 100,000), the Allies only a few hundred. Machine guns were responsible for the most military deaths in WWI. Machine guns were responsible for the most military deaths in WWI.

106. Submarine warfare The war at sea proved to be as indecisive as the stalemate on the Western Front. The war at sea proved to be as indecisive as the stalemate on the Western Front. Confident in Britain’s superior naval power, the Allies blockaded German ports. Confident in Britain’s superior naval power, the Allies blockaded German ports. What was the strategy? What was the strategy? The Germans responded by setting a blockade perimeter around the British Isles and France, based on submarines. The Germans responded by setting a blockade perimeter around the British Isles and France, based on submarines. Neutral shipping became a target as well. Neutral shipping became a target as well.

107. Unterseeboot (U-Boats) The German submarine (or undersea boat = The German submarine (or undersea boat = U-boat) gave the German navy an alternative to conventional naval warfare. Submarines could hide from the large British navy by staying underwater. They could sneak up on their victims, launch torpedo attacks, and slide silently into the safety of the ocean depths. Submarines could hide from the large British navy by staying underwater. They could sneak up on their victims, launch torpedo attacks, and slide silently into the safety of the ocean depths.

108. Unterseeboot (U-Boats) Germany entered the war with 28 submarines, and built one, on average, every four days. Germany entered the war with 28 submarines, and built one, on average, every four days. Germany had 370 U-boats terrorizing the seas by the end of WWI. Germany had 370 U-boats terrorizing the seas by the end of WWI.

109. German U-Boats 274 U-boats had kills, and by the end of the war, nearly 6,600 ships (including 13,000,000 tons of cargo) had been sunk by U-boats (including 349 British naval warships). 274 U-boats had kills, and by the end of the war, nearly 6,600 ships (including 13,000,000 tons of cargo) had been sunk by U-boats (including 349 British naval warships).

110. German U-Boats But there was a problem with submarine warfare. U-boat commanders had a hard time determining if the ship under attack was Allied or of a neutral country (like the U.S.). But there was a problem with submarine warfare. U-boat commanders had a hard time determining if the ship under attack was Allied or of a neutral country (like the U.S.). This was a serious problem because submarines gave no warning of attack, and passengers and crew, whether neutral or Allied, were often unable to abandon ship before it sank. This was a serious problem because submarines gave no warning of attack, and passengers and crew, whether neutral or Allied, were often unable to abandon ship before it sank.

111. British Q-Ships The obvious solution to the submarine problem, the Germans argued, was to have the subs surface to check the target’s nationality and give the crews a chance to abandon ship. The obvious solution to the submarine problem, the Germans argued, was to have the subs surface to check the target’s nationality and give the crews a chance to abandon ship. This worked for a few months until early 1915 when the British began sending out Q-ships. This worked for a few months until early 1915 when the British began sending out Q-ships.

112. British Q-Ships Designed to look like merchant ships (i.e. decoys designed to fake the Germans out), Q- ships were heavily armed. So when U-boats surfaced to give warning, Q-ships suddenly opened fire. Designed to look like merchant ships (i.e. decoys designed to fake the Germans out), Q- ships were heavily armed. So when U-boats surfaced to give warning, Q-ships suddenly opened fire. There were 366 Q-ships (61 were lost) but they sunk 14 U-boats and damaged 60. There were 366 Q-ships (61 were lost) but they sunk 14 U-boats and damaged 60.

113. Gun on a Q-ship

114. Q-Ships To safeguard against sinking neutral ships, the Germans declared a “war zone” around Britain and Ireland, declaring all ships in that zone would be considered enemy vessels and sunk. To safeguard against sinking neutral ships, the Germans declared a “war zone” around Britain and Ireland, declaring all ships in that zone would be considered enemy vessels and sunk. After nearly 18 months, Germany decided to resume U-boat attacks without warning (unrestricted submarine warfare). This greatly angered the U.S. After nearly 18 months, Germany decided to resume U-boat attacks without warning (unrestricted submarine warfare). This greatly angered the U.S.

115. Battle of Jutland The only major naval battle of the war occurred in May 1916 and was in the North Sea off the coast of Denmark. The only major naval battle of the war occurred in May 1916 and was in the North Sea off the coast of Denmark. Neither side scored a “knock-out,” so for all of their posturing before the war, the naval arms race did not have an effect on the war’s outcome. Neither side scored a “knock-out,” so for all of their posturing before the war, the naval arms race did not have an effect on the war’s outcome.

116. Gallipoli (Dardanelles Campaign) When Turkey (Ottoman Empire) entered the war in November 1914, the British, under orders from Winston Churchill, wanted to find a way to knock the Turks out plus find a way to supply the Russians through the Black Sea. When Turkey (Ottoman Empire) entered the war in November 1914, the British, under orders from Winston Churchill, wanted to find a way to knock the Turks out plus find a way to supply the Russians through the Black Sea. In February 1915, the British tried to crush the Turks. But the Turks showed fierce and effective resistance. HMS Irresistible sinking and abandoned at Gallipoli. In February 1915, the British tried to crush the Turks. But the Turks showed fierce and effective resistance. HMS Irresistible sinking and abandoned at Gallipoli.

117. Gallipoli (Dardanelles Campaign) The ensuing battles which lasted until January 1916 (known as Gallipoli), cost the British nearly 500,000 casualties (almost 50,000 dead), and the British had to withdraw without gaining anything. The ensuing battles which lasted until January 1916 (known as Gallipoli), cost the British nearly 500,000 casualties (almost 50,000 dead), and the British had to withdraw without gaining anything. This crushed Allied morale and almost cost Winston Churchill his political career. This crushed Allied morale and almost cost Winston Churchill his political career.

118. Verdun Trying to break the stalemate and crush French morale, the Germans (led by Crown Prince William) in February 1916 attacked the French fortified city of Verdun (125 miles east of Paris near the German border). Trying to break the stalemate and crush French morale, the Germans (led by Crown Prince William) in February 1916 attacked the French fortified city of Verdun (125 miles east of Paris near the German border). Both France and Germany considered Verdun strategically important. Both France and Germany considered Verdun strategically important.

119. Verdun The Battle of Verdun became the longest, bloodiest battle of the war. The Battle of Verdun became the longest, bloodiest battle of the war.

120. Verdun The Germans used their “Big Bertha” guns to pound the city. The Germans used their “Big Bertha” guns to pound the city. At one point, the Germans fired as many as one million shells a day into Verdun. At one point, the Germans fired as many as one million shells a day into Verdun.

121. Verdun While it looked like the Germans would win, the French put up a good fight (“They shall not pass!”) and the battle became another drawn out stalemate. French resolve here became legendary. While it looked like the Germans would win, the French put up a good fight (“They shall not pass!”) and the battle became another drawn out stalemate. French resolve here became legendary. In 10 months of fierce fighting, the French lost over 350,000 men and the Germans lost over 330,000. In 10 months of fierce fighting, the French lost over 350,000 men and the Germans lost over 330,000.

122. The Somme While Verdun raged throughout most of 1916, the Allies opened a massive front designed to break the stalemate and the German lines at the Somme. While Verdun raged throughout most of 1916, the Allies opened a massive front designed to break the stalemate and the German lines at the Somme. Despite a weeklong artillery bombardment, the British lost 60,000 men the first day (nearly 20,000 killed). This was the worst single day in British military history. Despite a weeklong artillery bombardment, the British lost 60,000 men the first day (nearly 20,000 killed). This was the worst single day in British military history.

123. The Somme In one week, the British had advanced only one mile along a six mile front. In one week, the British had advanced only one mile along a six mile front. In a month, the British had advanced less than three miles. In a month, the British had advanced less than three miles.

124. The Somme In the three months the battle was fought, Britain gained less than seven miles at a cost of over 400,000 men, the French lost 200,000, and the Germans lost nearly 500,000 men. In the three months the battle was fought, Britain gained less than seven miles at a cost of over 400,000 men, the French lost 200,000, and the Germans lost nearly 500,000 men.

125. The German Potato Famine The German potato crop of 1915 was three times the norm. The surplus was so large that farmers had to scramble for places to store it. The German potato crop of 1915 was three times the norm. The surplus was so large that farmers had to scramble for places to store it. Because of the war effort, most of the warehouses were full of war material or ammunition. Because of the war effort, most of the warehouses were full of war material or ammunition.

126. The German Potato Famine The German government then decided to store potatoes in the warm basements of public buildings, including schools. The German government then decided to store potatoes in the warm basements of public buildings, including schools. After all available space was filled, there were still too many potatoes. Farmers fed them to cattle. Distillers made more schnapps. Many went to waste. After all available space was filled, there were still too many potatoes. Farmers fed them to cattle. Distillers made more schnapps. Many went to waste.

127. The German Potato Famine After two-three months, students and teachers noticed a terrible smell coming from the basements below them. After two-three months, students and teachers noticed a terrible smell coming from the basements below them. It was discovered that the potatoes were rotting. By the spring of 1916, schools had to close for “stench vacations”. It was discovered that the potatoes were rotting. By the spring of 1916, schools had to close for “stench vacations”.

128. The German Potato Famine People thought the potatoes rotted because of the warm buildings. In actuality, it was because of the infection of a fungus. Most of the surplus was ruined. People thought the potatoes rotted because of the warm buildings. In actuality, it was because of the infection of a fungus. Most of the surplus was ruined. The fungus spores were in the soil, so next year’s potato crop was almost totally destroyed. The fungus spores were in the soil, so next year’s potato crop was almost totally destroyed.

129. The German Potato Famine This could have been easily prevented by the use of copper fungicides, which protect the potato from fungus. This could have been easily prevented by the use of copper fungicides, which protect the potato from fungus. But all German copper was used to make brass ammunition for the war. But all German copper was used to make brass ammunition for the war. So by the fall of 1917, Germans were waiting in line for turnips or whatever food was available (this became known as the Turnip Winter). So by the fall of 1917, Germans were waiting in line for turnips or whatever food was available (this became known as the Turnip Winter).

130. The German Potato Famine The few potatoes unaffected by the blight were sent to feed the troops. The few potatoes unaffected by the blight were sent to feed the troops. More than 700,000 German civilians died of starvation or due to disease related to starvation between 1916 and 1917. More than 700,000 German civilians died of starvation or due to disease related to starvation between 1916 and 1917. The deaths of loved ones at home weakened the German Army’s morale. Several historians consider this famine and the resulting low morale a major contributing factor in the collapse of Germany’s army in the late Fall of 1918. The deaths of loved ones at home weakened the German Army’s morale. Several historians consider this famine and the resulting low morale a major contributing factor in the collapse of Germany’s army in the late Fall of 1918.