1. What do genes look like?

3. I. Genes – segments of DNA that carry hereditary instructions and are passed from parent to offspring; genes are located on chromosomes

4. Chromosome Structure of Eukaryotes
Section 12-2
Nucleosome
Chromosome
DNA
double
helix
Coils
Supercoils
Histones
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5. DNA – Hereditary material that controls all the activities of a cell and provides the instructions for making proteins
DNA is made of nucleotides
Nucleotides have three parts; 5-carbon sugar, phosphate group and a nitrogen base

6. Nucleotides are identical except for the nitrogen base
A nucleotide can contain 1 of 4 Nitrogen Bases –
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Thymine

7. Sugar Phosphate Group Nitrogen Base Can Be: Adenine Guanine Cytosine
Thymine
Sugar

8. 3. The amount of Adenine = Thymine, Cytosine = Guanine (Chargaff’s Rule)

9. III. The Double Helix- 1953, 2 American scientists, Watson and Crick, discovered the structure of DNA using the X-rays made by Rosalind Franklin

10. 2 strands wound around each other like a twisted ladder
Strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogen bases
Adenine bonds to Thymine and Cytosine bonds to Guanine

11. Structure of DNA Nucleotide Hydrogen bonds Sugar-phosphate backbone
Section 12-1
Nucleotide
Hydrogen bonds
Sugar-phosphate backbone
Key
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
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13. Mealor’s First Love

14. IV. Replication: Before a cell divides, DNA on every chromosome is copied so that each new cell has an identical set of chromosomes

16. DNA Replication
IV. Replication: Before a cell divides, DNA on every chromosome is copied so that each new cell has an identical set of chromosomes
TAAGTGTACACGTA
ATTCACATGTGCAT
TAAGTGTACACGTA
TCACATCG
TAAGTGTACACGTA
TCACATCG
TCACATCG
AGTCCGATCGTAACTGGGTCACATCGTAAGTGTACACGTA
TCAGGCTAGCATTGACCCAGTGTAGCATTCACATGTGCAT
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
AGTCCGATCGTAACTGGG
TCACATCG
TAAGTGTACACGTA
||||||||||||||||||
||||||||||||||||||||||
TCAGGCTAGCATTGACCC
AGTGTAGC
ATTCACATGTGCAT
AGTGTAGC
AGTGTAGC
ATTCACATGTGCAT
TAAGTGTACACGTA
ATTCACATGTGCAT

17. Make a complimentary strand
ATT CGT ACG TTT ACT

18. Make a complimentary strand
ATT CGT ACG TTT ACT

19. Make a complimentary strand
ATT CGT ACG TTT ACT
TAA

20. Make a complimentary strand
ATT CGT ACG TTT ACT
TAA GCA

21. Make a complimentary strand
ATT CGT ACG TTT ACT
TAA GCA TGC

22. Make a complimentary strand
ATT CGT ACG TTT ACT
TAA GCA TGC AAA

23. Make a complimentary strand
ATT CGT ACG TTT ACT
TAA GCA TGC AAA TGA

24. I. How DNA works to create our traits – DNA cannot leave the nucleus
I. How DNA works to create our traits – DNA cannot leave the nucleus. A copy of the DNA code is made in the nucleus into RNA. RNA travels to the ribosome where the code is read and the protein is assembled

25. The nitrogen bases in every gene make a code
Every three bases makes one codon
One codon is the code for one amino acid
Long chains of amino acids make proteins
****Proteins determine an organisms traits and characteristics

26. Making a Protein – Translation
Section 12-3
Nucleus
Messenger RNA
Messenger RNA is transcribed in the nucleus.
mRNA
Lysine
Phenylalanine
tRNA
Transfer RNA
The mRNA then enters the cytoplasm and attaches to a ribosome. Translation begins at AUG, the start codon. Each transfer RNA has an anticodon whose bases are complementary to a codon on the mRNA strand. The ribosome positions the start codon to attract its anticodon, which is part of the tRNA that binds methionine. The ribosome also binds the next codon and its anticodon.
Methionine
Ribosome
mRNA
Start codon
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27. Making a Protein Section 12-3 Go to Section:
The Polypeptide “Assembly Line”
The ribosome joins the two amino acids—methionine and phenylalanine—and breaks the bond between methionine and its tRNA. The tRNA floats away, allowing the ribosome to bind to another tRNA. The ribosome moves along the mRNA, binding new tRNA molecules and amino acids.
Growing polypeptide chain
Ribosome
tRNA
Lysine
tRNA
mRNA
Completing the Polypeptide
The process continues until the ribosome reaches one of the three stop codons. The result is a growing polypeptide chain.
mRNA
Translation direction
Ribosome
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28. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: Translation
DNA in the Nucleus: ATA GCT CCG TTA
Code is made into RNA: UAU CGA GGC AAU
***In RNA Thymine is replaced by Uracil
Amino Acid Chain is made at the ribosome:
Tyrosine: Arginine: Glycine: ___________
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29. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in the Nucleus: ATA GCT CCG TTA
Code is made into RNA: UAU CGA GGC AAU
***In RNA Thymine is replaced by Uracil
Amino Acid Chain is made at the ribosome:
Tyrosine: Arginine: Glycine: Asparagine
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30. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: TTA TTT CCC AAT
RNA:
Go to Section:

31. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: TTA TTT CCC AAT
RNA: AAU
Go to Section:

32. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: TTA TTT CCC AAT
RNA: AAU AAA
Go to Section:

33. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: TTA TTT CCC AAT
RNA: AAU AAA GGG
Go to Section:

34. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: TTA TTT CCC AAT
RNA: AAU AAA GGG UUA
Amino Acid Chain (Protein):
Go to Section:

35. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: TTA TTT CCC AAT
RNA: AAU AAA GGG UUA
Amino Acid Chain (Protein):
Asparagine:
Go to Section:

36. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: TTA TTT CCC AAT
RNA: AAU AAA GGG UUA
Amino Acid Chain (Protein):
Asparagine: Lysine
Go to Section:

37. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: TTA GCG CCC AAT
RNA: AAU CGC GGG UUA
Amino Acid Chain (Protein):
Asparagine: Lysine: Glycine:
Go to Section:

38. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: TTA TTT CCC AAT
RNA: AAU CGC GGG UUA
Amino Acid Chain (Protein):
Asparagine: Lysine: Glycine: Leucine
This protein will determine a characteristic or trait
Go to Section:

39. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: AAA TCT GAC CAT
RNA:
Go to Section:

40. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: AAA TCT GAC CAT
RNA: UUU
Go to Section:

41. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: AAA TCT GAC CAT
RNA: UUU AGA
Go to Section:

42. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: AAA TCT GAC CAT
RNA: UUU AGA CUG
Go to Section:

43. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: AAA TCT GAC CAT
RNA: UUU AGA CUG GUA
Amino Acid Chain (Protein):
Go to Section:

44. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: AAA TCT GAC CAT
RNA: UUU AGA CUG GUA
Amino Acids Chain (Protein):
Phenylalanine:
Go to Section:

45. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: AAA TCT GAC CAT
RNA: UUU AGA CUG GUA
Amino Acids Chain (Protein):
Phenylalanine: Arginine:
Go to Section:

46. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: AAA TCT GAC CAT
RNA: UUU AGA CUG GUA
Amino Acids Chain (Protein):
Phenylalanine: Arginine: Leucine:
Go to Section:

47. The Genetic Code Making a Protein: DNA in Nucleus: AAA TCT GAC CAT
RNA: UUU AGA CUG GUA
Amino Acids Chain (Protein):
Phenylalanine: Arginine: Leucine: Valine
This protein will now determine a trait or a characteristic
Go to Section:

48. Structure of DNA Nucleotide Hydrogen bonds Sugar-phosphate backbone
Section 12-1
Nucleotide
Hydrogen bonds
Sugar-phosphate backbone
Key
Adenine (A)
Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C)
Guanine (G)
Go to Section:

49. III. Mutations- changes in the DNA sequence that affect genetic information (not all are harmful)
Can affect all types of cells
A. Germ Mutations- affect sex cells – inherited by offspring (ex- Down Syndrome)
B. Somatic Mutations – affect other cells- not inherited (many cancers caused by somatic mutations)

50. IV. 2 types of mutations
A. Gene Mutations (#1) - changes in a single gene. 2 types of gene mutations-
1. Point mutations- affect only one nucleotide
*Can be caused by substitutions
2. Frameshift mutations - type of point mutation where nucleotide is inserted or deleted;affects every amino acid after that point.
*Can be caused by deletion or insertion

51. Effect of Mutations
Sickle cell disease
single nucleotide change AT

52. Gene Mutations: Substitution, Insertion, and Deletion
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53. B. Chromosomal Mutations (#2) - changes in whole chromosomes
B. Chromosomal Mutations (#2) - changes in whole chromosomes. 4 types of chromosomal mutations.
1. Deletion- loss of all or part of chromosome
2. Duplication- segment of a chromosome is repeated
3. Inversion- chromosome becomes reversed
4. Translocation- part of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to a different chromosome

54. Chromosomal Mutations
Section 12-4
 Chromosomal Mutations
Deletion
Duplication
Inversion
Translocation
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55. V. What are the effects of mutations?
A. Proteins are altered.
B. Proteins are unable to perform “normal” functions.
Sometimes mutations are harmful, sometimes there is no affect, and sometimes mutations can be helpful. (Helpful when mutation produces a trait that aids in survival)

57. Organisms Can Change!

58. VI. Genetic Manipulation- when humans change the genes of an organism to achieve a desired result.
A. Selective breeding- allowing only the individuals with desired traits to reproduce. 2 types
Hybridization-crossbreeding dissimilar individuals: offspring will have the best of both
Ex: donkey x horse = mule
Inbreeding-breeding individuals with similar characteristics: maintain certain characteristics in offspring
Ex: German Shepard x German Shepard = German Shepard

62. VII. Genetic Engineering – Desired genes are removed from one organism and added or recombined into another organism. This forms a transgenic organism with recombinant DNA
A. This is used to make proteins not normally made by the cell. Can be used to produce: Drugs like insulin, Vaccines, Plants resistant to Insects, Reduce pollution, Better crops/meat

63. VIII. Evolution –natural process through which species change over time
A. The environment “selects” the best traits – only those best suited will survive and pass on their traits to offspring.
B. Evolution– occurs because of genetic differences caused by mutations in DNA

64. Concept Map Section 15-3 Evidence of Evolution includes
The fossil record
Geographic distribution of living species
Homologous body structures
Similarities in early development
which is composed of
which indicates
which implies
which implies
Physical remains of organisms
Common ancestral species
Similar genes