1. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A Survey of General and Organic Chemistry Dr. Dragan Marinkovic dmarinkovic@elcamino.edu Spring Semester 2009 El Camino College, Torrance, CA

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3. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic Dragan ≠ Dragan =+ (pronounce as)

4. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY H 2 O, NaCl Systematic (IUPAC) name (2α, ​ 4α, ​ 5β, ​ 7β, ​ 10β, ​ 13α)- ​ 4, ​ 10- ​ bis(acetyloxy)- ​ 13- ​ {[(2R, ​ 3S)- ​ 3- ​ (benzoylamino)- ​ 2- ​ hydroxy- ​ 3- ​ phenylpropanoyl] ​ oxy}- ​ 1, ​ 7- ​ dihydroxy- ​ 9- ​ oxo- ​ 5, ​ 20- ​ epoxytax- ​ 11- ​ en- ​ 2- ​ yl benzoate TAXOL ® (paclitaxel) watertable salt

5. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY Medicines containing derivatives of salicylic acid, structurally similar to aspirin, have been in medical use since ancient times. Salicylate-rich willow bark extract became recognized for its Salicylate specific effects on fever, pain and inflammation in the mid-eighteenth century. In 1897, scientists at the drug and dye firm Bayer began investigating acetylsalicylic acid as a less-irritating replacement for standard common salicylate medicines. By 1899, Bayer had dubbed this drug Aspirin and was selling it around the world. The name Aspirin is derived from A = Acetyl and "Spirsäure" = an old (German) name for salicylic acid. At the beginning of 20th century heroin was touted as a wonder drug promising to solve all of life's maladies ranging from tuberculosis to a disagreeable stomach.

6. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic Question: What Is Chemistry? Answer: If you look 'chemistry' up in Webster's Dictionary, you'll see: "chem·is·try n., pl. –tries” 1.the science that systematically studies the composition, properties, and activity of organic and inorganic substances and various elementary forms of matter. 2.chemical properties, reactions, phenomena, etc.: the chemistry of carbon. 3. a. sympathetic understanding; rapport. b. sexual attraction. 4. the constituent elements of something; the chemistry of love. CHEMISTRY

7. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem), meaning "earth“ 1)Chemistry is the science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. 2) Chemistry is a physical science for studies of various atoms, molecules, crystals and other aggregates of matter whether in isolation or combination, which incorporates the concepts of energy and entropy in relation to the spontaneity of chemical processes. Modern chemistry evolved out of alchemy after the chemical revolution (1773) CHEMISTRY

8. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic Disciplines within chemistry include Inorganic chemistry Inorganic chemistry, the study of inorganic matterinorganic Organic chemistry Organic chemistry, the study of organic matterorganic Biochemistry Biochemistry, the study of substances found in biological organismssubstancesbiological organisms Physical chemistry Physical chemistry, the energy related studies ofenergy chemical systems at macro, molecular and submolecular scales Analytical chemistry Analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. chemical compositionstructure Medicinal or pharmaceutical chemistry is a discipline at the intersection of chemistry and pharmacology involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. chemistrypharmacology designingsynthesizingpharmaceuticaldrugs CHEMISTRY

9. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic Why Study Chemistry? Because understanding chemistry helps you to understand the world around you. Cooking is chemistry. Everything you can touch or taste or smell is a chemical. When you study chemistry, you come to understand a bit about how things work. Chemistry isn't secret knowledge, useless to anyone but a scientist. It's the explanation for everyday things, like why laundry detergent works better in hot water, or how baking soda works, or why not all pain relievers work equally well on a headache. If you know some chemistry, you can make educated choices about everyday products that you use. CHEMISTRY

10. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A The real importance of Chemistry is that it serves as the interface to practically all of the other sciences, as well as to many other areas of human endeavor. For this reason, Chemistry is often said (at least by chemists!) to be the "central science". Chemistry can be "central" in a much more personal way: with a solid background in Chemistry, you will find it far easier to migrate into other fields as your interests develop. Chemistry: the central science

11. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY HEALTH SCIENCES NUTRITION MICROBIOLOGY BOTANY PHYSIOLOGY MATERIALS SCIENCE CHEMISTRY

12. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A Chemistry 21A is the first semester of a two-semester sequence designed to provide students with the skills and knowledge needed to satisfy the requirements for several allied health related majors, especially the pre-Nursing major. This course presents the fundamental principles of inorganic chemistry and begins the study of organic chemistry. Chemistry 21A fulfills the chemistry prerequisite for Biology 1B, Microbiology 33, and Physiology 31, and provides the foundation necessary for success in Chemistry 21B (the second course in the sequence).

13. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A Materials: 1. Seager and Slabaugh, Chemistry for Today: General, Organic, and Biochemistry, 6th Ed. 2. Campbell, Chemistry 21A Packet 3. Peller, Exploring Chemistry: Laboratory Experiments in General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, 2nd Ed. 4. Safety goggles (Instructor approved - do not purchase until "fitted" in class) 5. Calculator (able lo handle exponential notation calculations and logarithms) 6. OPTIONAL: Study Guide and Solutions Manual for Seager and,Slabaugh's Chemistry for Today: General, Organic, and Biochemistry 5th Ed. 7. A set of different colored pens or pencils is recommended for note taking!

14. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A Grading: Final letter grades will generally be assigned according to the following percentage of total points earned: Grade -- Percent A 90 - 100% B 80 - 90% C 65 - 80% D 55 - 65% F below 55% Approximate distribution of points: Tests (3 @ 100 points each)........................................... 300 Quizzes (9 @ 20 points each)......................................... 180 Laboratory (total points)................................................. 240 Assignments/Other....................................................... 30 Final Exam.................................................................. 250 Course Total.................................................................. 1000

15. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A Is it possible to do lots of hard work and have fun at the same time?

16. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A Is it possible to do lots of hard work and have fun at the same time? Maybe?

17. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A Is it possible to do lots of hard work and have fun at the same time? Maybe? Maybe not?

18. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A But, we can certainly try and make the best of this very scientific course. You will have to learn many new definitions, visualize many abstract concepts and start thinking like a scientist. I compare learning chemistry to learning a foreign language. You have to learn words before you can speak. So, new chemical words are waiting for you! I’ll try my best and I expect you will try your best too! I am here to help you learn, and I MEAN IT! Let me know how I can help you learn. Is it possible to do lots of hard work and have fun at the same time? Maybe? Maybe not?

19. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A I am here to help you learn, and I MEAN IT! Let me know how I can help you learn.

20. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A I am here to help you learn, and I MEAN IT! Let me know how I can help you learn. However, I am not going to give out “easy passes”. Please, be prepared and ready for work. Be attentive. (No cell phones, video games, snacks or fixing make-up during classes!) Ask relevant questions!

21. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CHEMISTRY 21A I am here to help you learn, and I MEAN IT! Let me know how I can help you learn. I am here to help you learn, and I MEAN IT! Let me know how I can help you learn. However, I am not going to give out “easy passes”. Please, be prepared and ready for work. Be attentive. (No cell phones, video games, snacks or fixing make-up during classes!) Ask relevant questions!

22. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER Chemistry is the science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.

23. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER Matter is anything that has mass and volume (occupies space). Chemistry is the science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.sciencechemical reactions Matter is basically everything around us, us included. The amount of matter measured by its resistance to acceleration (movement)

24. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER Matter is anything that has mass and volume (occupies space). Chemistry is the science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.sciencechemical reactions Matter is basically everything around us, us included. The amount of matter measured by its resistance to acceleration (movement) Mass is a measurement of matter present.

25. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER Matter is anything that has mass and volume (occupies space). Chemistry is the science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions.sciencechemical reactions Matter is basically everything around us, us included. The amount of matter measured by its resistance to acceleration (movement) Mass is a measurement of matter present. Weight is a measurement of the gravitational force acting on an object.

26. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER Characteristics of objects: shape, size, color… (scientific terms): PROPERTIES OF MATTER Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the composition of matter. Physical properties are used to observe and describe matter. Physical properties include: appearance, texture, color, odor, melting point, boiling point, density, solubility, polarity, and many others.

27. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER Chemical property is any of a material's properties that becomes evident during a chemical reaction. Chemical property is any quality that can be established only by changing a substance's composition. Simply speaking, chemical properties cannot be determined just by viewing or touching the substance. The substance's internal structure must be affected for its chemical properties to be investigated.

28. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER Physical properties : NO CHANGE in the composition of matter. Chemical properties : CHANGE in the composition of matter.

29. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic SCIENTIFIC METHOD Scientific method refers to bodies of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses. The essential elements of a scientific method are: Characterizations (observations, definitions, and measurements of the subject of inquiry) Hypotheses (theoretical, hypothetical explanations of observations and measurements of the subject) Predictions (reasoning including logical deduction from the hypothesis or theory) Experiments (tests of all of the above) Gather information and resources (observe) Form hypothesis Perform experiment and collect data Analyze data Interpret data and draw conclusions that serve as a starting point for new hypothesis Publish results Retest (frequently done by other scientists)

30. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS MEASUREMENT is a process to attach a numerical value to an observation. This is done to be able to compare or order two or more such observations.

31. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS MEASUREMENT UNIT NUMBER + (hr, oz, o F, ft, gal, $)(3, 16, 8.9) MEASUREMENT is a process to attach a numerical value to an observation. This is done to be able to compare or order two or more such observations.

32. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS MEASUREMENT UNIT NUMBER + (hr, oz, o F, ft, gal, $)(3, 16, 8.9) MEASUREMENT is a process to attach a numerical value to an observation. This is done to be able to compare or order two or more such observations. Units of Measurement provide standards to compare against.

33. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS UNITS of length

34. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS The METRIC SYSTEM Internationally adopted in 1960. The METRIC SYSTEM is a DECIMAL system length METER mass KILOGRAM volume LITRE Imperial Units length FOOT, YARD, MILE mass OUNCE, POUND volume FLUID OUNCE, GALLON (US units of measurement) The fluid ounce in Britain is smaller than the fluid ounce in the US, but the US gallon is smaller than the British gallon 1 foot = 12 inches 1 yard = 3 feet (plural of foot) = 36 inches 1 mile = 1760 yards = 5280 feet 1 meter = 1000 millimeters 1 kilometer = 1000 meters

35. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS The SI decimal prefixes Owing to the wide range of values that quantities can have, it has long been the practice to employ prefixes such as milli and mega to indicate decimal fractions and multiples of metric units. As part of the SI standard, this system has been extended and formalized. prefixabbreviationmultiplier -- prefixabbreviation Multiplie r exaE10 18 decid10 –1 petaP10 15 centic10 –2 teraT10 12 millim10 –3 gigaG10 9 microμ10 –6 megaM10 6 nanon10 –9 kilok10 3 picop10 –12 hectoh10 2 femtof10 –15 decada10 attoa 10 –18

36. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS Units of measurement provide standards to compare against. Basic unit of measurement is a specific unit from which other units for the same quantity are obtained by multiplication or division.

37. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS Units of measurement provide standards to compare against. Basic unit of measurement is a specific unit from which other units for the same quantity are obtained by multiplication or division. Derived unit of measurement is a unit obtained by multiplication or division of one or more basic units. e.g. area = (length)(length) = (length) 2 volume = (length)(length)(length) = (length) 3

38. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS Conversion Factors for Units of Length 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 1 foot = 0.305 meter 1 yard = 0.914 meter 1 mile = 1.609 kilometers 1 nautical mile = 1.852 kilometers 1 centimeter = 0.39 inch 1 meter = 39.37 inches = 3.28 feet = 1.094 yards 1 kilometer = 0.62 miles Conversion Factors for Units of Volume 1 cubic inch = 16.4 cubic centimeters 1 cubic foot = 0.0283 cubic meter 1 cubic yard = 0.765 cubic meter 1 fluid ounce = 29.6 milliliters 1 U.S. pint = 0.473 liter 1 U.S. quart = 0.946 liter 1 U.S. gallon = 3.8 liters 1 cubic centimeter = 0.06 cubic inch 1 cubic meter = 1.3 cubic yards 1 milliliter = 0.034 fluid ounce 1 liter = 1.06 U.S. quarts

39. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS Conversion Factors for Units of Weight or Mass 1 grain = 64 milligrams 1 ounce = 28.35 grams 1 pound = 0.45 kilogram 1 gram = 0.035 ounce 1 kilogram= 2.205 pounds 1 metric ton = 1.1 short ton Standard 1 lb = 0.45359237 kg 1 kg = 2.204622621849 lb 1 kg = 35.27396194958 oz

40. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin Temperature Conversion °C = (100/180) X (°F - 32) °F = (1.8 X °C) + 32 °K = °C + 273.15 °C = °K - 273.15 °K = [(100/180) X (°F - 32)] + 273.15 °F = [1.8 X (°K - 273.15)] + 32

41. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS/ENERGY Energy Units Conversions British Thermal Unit Foot- pounds Joulescalories Kilo- calories Kilowatt- hours 1 British Thermal Unit1777.91055252.00.2522.93x10 -4 1 Foot-pound0.00128511.3560.32383.238x10 -4 3.766x10 -7 1 joule9.481x10 -4 0.737610.23882.388x10 -4 2.778x10 -7 1 calorie0.0039693.0884.18710.0011.163x10 -6 1 kilocalorie3.96930884187100010.001163 1 kilowatt hour34132.655x10 6 3.6x10 6 8.598x10 5 859.81 energy (from the Greek ἐ νέργεια - energeia "activity, operation", from ἐ νεργός - energos, "active, working") is a scalar physical quantity that describes the amount of work that can be performed by a force. Energy is an attribute of objects and systems that is subject to a conservation law. Several different forms of energy exist to explain all known natural phenomena. These forms include (but are not limited to) kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, light, elastic, and electromagnetic energy. The forms of energy are often named after a related force. Any form of energy can be transformed into another form, but the total energy always remains the same.

42. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic ENERGY The forms of energy are kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, light, elastic, and electromagnetic energy. KINETIC ENERGY The energy a particle has as A result of its motion. 1 KE = ----- mv 2 2 POTENTIAL ENERGY The energy a particle has as A result of attractive or repulsive forces acting on it. COHESIVE FORCE The attractive force between particles; it is associated with potential energy. DISRUPTIVE FORCE The force resulting from particles motion; it is associated with kinetic energy.

43. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS Temperature Conversion °C = (100/180) X (°F - 32) °F = (1.8 X °C) + 32 °K = °C + 273.15 °C = °K - 273.15 °K = [(100/180) X (°F - 32)] + 273.15 °F = [1.8 X (°K - 273.15)] + 32 Conversion Factors for Units of Weight or Mass 1 grain = 64 milligrams 1 ounce = 28.35 grams 1 pound = 0.45 kilogram 1 gram = 0.035 ounce 1 kilogram= 2.205 pounds 1 metric ton = 1.1 short ton Standard 1 lb = 0.45359237 kg 1 kg = 2.204622621849 lb 1 kg = 35.27396194958 oz Conversion Factors for Units of Volume 1 cubic inch = 16.4 cubic centimeters 1 cubic foot = 0.0283 cubic meter 1 cubic yard = 0.765 cubic meter 1 fluid ounce = 29.6 milliliters 1 U.S. pint = 0.473 liter 1 U.S. quart = 0.946 liter 1 U.S. gallon = 3.8 liters 1 cubic centimeter = 0.06 cubic inch 1 cubic meter = 1.3 cubic yards 1 milliliter = 0.034 fluid ounce 1 liter = 1.06 U.S.quarts Conversion Factors for Units of Length 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 1 foot = 0.305 meter 1 yard = 0.914 meter 1 mile = 1.609 kilometers 1 nautical mile = 1.852 kilometers 1 centimeter = 0.39 inch 1 meter = 39.37 inches = 3.28 feet = 1.094 yards 1 kilometer = 0.62 miles

44. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS High accuracy, but low precision High precision, but low accuracy ACCURACY is a MEASURE of the degree of agreement between a MEASURED value and TRUE value of the dimension measured. PRECISION is a MEASURE of the degree of agreement between a SUCCESSIVE MEASUREMENTS of the SAME property of the SAME item. All measurements are subject to two kinds of errors: 1.ERRORS due to the measuring instrument 2.ERRORS due to the person doing the measuring

45. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic CALCULATING PERCENTAGES What is a percentage ? Percent means “for every 100” or "out of 100." The (%) symbol as a quick way to write a fraction with a denominator of 100. As an example, instead of saying "it rained 14 days out of every 100," we say "it rained 14% of the time." 12 people out of a total of 25 were female. What percentage were female? The price of a $1:50 candy bar was to be increased by 20%. What was the new price?

46. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MEASUREMENTS The PERCENTAGE ERROR tells the degree of accuracy of your work, the agreement between your value and accepted value of the measurement. (accepted value) – (experimental value) % error = --------------------------------------------------------- x 100 accepted value (actual value) – (estimated value) % error = --------------------------------------------------------- x 100 actual value

47. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic LARGE AND SMALL NUMBERS Scientific notation is simply a method for expressing, and working with, very large or very small numbers. 5.67 x 10 5 This is the scientific notation for the standard number, 567 000. Now look at the number again, with the three parts labeled. 5.67 x 10 5 coefficient base exponent 1. The coefficient must be greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10. 2. The base must be 10. 3. The exponent must show the number of decimal places that the decimal needs to be moved to change the number to standard notation. A negative exponent means that the decimal is moved to the left when changing to standard notation. Changing numbers from scientific notation to standard notation. Ex.1 Change 6.03 x 10 7 to standard notation. remember, 10 7 = 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 x 10 = 10 000 000 so, 6.03 x 10 7 = 6.03 x 10 000 000 = 60 300 000 answer = 60 300 000 Instead of finding the value of the base, we can simply move the decimal seven places to the right because the exponent is 7. So, 6.03 x 10 7 = 60 300 000 Now let us try one with a negative exponent. Ex.2 Change 5.3 x 10 -4 to standard notation. The exponent tells us to move the decimal four places to the left. so, 5.3 x 10 -4 = 0.00053

48. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic LARGE AND SMALL NUMBERS Rule for Multiplication - When you multiply numbers with scientific notation, multiply the coefficients together and add the exponents. The base will remain 10. Ex 1. Multiply (3.45 x 10 7 ) x (6.25 x 10 5 ) first rewrite the problem as: (3.45 x 6.25) x (10 7 x 10 5 ) Then multiply the coefficients and add the exponents: 21.5625 x 10 12 Then change to correct scientific notation: 2.16 x 10 13 NOTE - we add one to the exponent because we moved the decimal one place to the left. Rule for Division - When dividing with scientific notation, divide the coefficients and subtract the exponents. The base will remain 10. Ex. 1 Divide 3.5 x 10 8 by 6.6 x 10 4 rewrite the problem as: 3.5 x 10 8 --------- 6.6 x 10 4 Divide the coefficients and subtract the exponents to get: 0.530303 x 10 4 Change to correct scientific notation to get: 5.30303 x 10 3 Note - We subtract one from the exponent because we moved the decimal one place to the right. Rule for Addition and Subtraction - when adding or subtracting in scientific notation, you must express the numbers as the same power of 10. This will often involve changing the decimal place of the coefficient. Ex. 1 Add 3.76 x 10 4 and 5.5 x 10 2 move the decimal to change 5.5 x 10 2 to 0.055 x 10 4 add the coefficients and leave the base and exponent the same: 3.76 + 0.055 = 3.815 x 10 4

49. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic SIGNIFICANT FIGURES "The population of our city is 157,872." "The number of registered voters as of Jan 1 was 27,833." = RELIABLE FIGURES

50. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic SIGNIFICANT FIGURES "The population of our city is 157,872." "The number of registered voters as of Jan 1 was 27,833." The first statement cannot possibly be correct. Even if a city’s population could be defined in a precise way (Permanent residents? Warm bodies?), how can we account for the minute-by minute changes that occur as people are born and die, or move in and move away? = RELIABLE FIGURES

51. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic SIGNIFICANT FIGURES "The population of our city is 157,872." "The number of registered voters as of Jan 1 was 27,833." The first statement cannot possibly be correct. Even if a city’s population could be defined in a precise way (Permanent residents? Warm bodies?), how can we account for the minute-by minute changes that occur as people are born and die, or move in and move away? Making sure that numbers make sense 157900 (the significant digits are underlined here) implies that the population is believed to be within the range of about 157850 to about 157950. In other words, the population is 157900±50. The “plus-or- minus 50” appended to this number means that we consider the absolute uncertainty of the population measurement to be 50 – (–50) = 100. We can also say that the relative uncertainty is 100/157900, which we can also express as 1 part in 1579, or 1/1579 = 0.000633, or about 0.06 percent. The value 158000 implies that the population is likely between about 157500 and 158500, or 158000±500. The absolute uncertainty of 1000 translates into a relative uncertainty of 1000/158000 or 1 part in 158, or about 0.6 percent. = RELIABLE FIGURES

52. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic SIGNIFICANT FIGURES A significant digit is all the numerals in a measured quantity (counting from the left) whose values are considered as known exactly, plus one more whose value could be one more or one less. The concept of significant digits has less to do with mathematics than with our confidence in a measurement. Rounding off always leads to the loss of numeric information, what we are getting rid of can be considered to be “numeric noise” that does not contribute to the quality of the measurement. The purpose in rounding off is to avoid expressing a value to a greater degree of precision than is consistent with the uncertainty in the measurement. = RELIABLE FIGURES

53. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic SIGNIFICANT FIGURES The concept of significant digits has less to do with mathematics than with our confidence in a measurement. It is "six point something": more than six but less than seven. With certainty we can say it is in the range of 6 to 7. Exactly where in that range is a estimate. We might guess it is 40% of the way, just less than halfway, between 6 and 7 or 6.4. If we had more marks on the scale we could make a better guess. It is clear that our estimate was close, but the measurement still does not align with a mark. Not only that, but we are having trouble reading the marks now because they are so fine. Now we can estimate with a higher precision that the measurement is 6.39, although you might say that it is 6.38 or even 6.40. Whatever it is, your best guess is 'correct' although it is not certain. Note the distinction between 6.4, 6.40, and 6.400. The three numbers indicate that the measurements were made with three different instruments. If you don't understand why they are different carefully readthe section on significant figures below.

54. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic SIGNIFICANT FIGURES The rules for rounding off If the first non-significant digit is less than 5, then the least significant digit remains unchanged. If the first non-significant digit is greater than 5, the least significant digit is incremented by 1. If the first non-significant digit is 5, the least significant digit can either be incremented or left unchanged, All non-significant digits are removed.

55. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic SIGNIFICANT FIGURES The rules for rounding off If the first non-significant digit is less than 5, then the least significant digit remains unchanged. If the first non-significant digit is greater than 5, the least significant digit is incremented by 1. If the first non-significant digit is 5, the least significant digit can either be incremented or left unchanged, All non-significant digits are removed. number to round / no. of sig. digits resultcomment 34.216 / 334.2 First non-significant digit (1) is less than 5, so number is simply truncated. 2.252 / 2 2.2 or 2.3 First non-significant digit is 5, so least sig. digit can either remain unchanged or be incremented. 39.99 / 340.0 Crossing "decimal boundary", so all numbers change. 85,381 / 385,400 The two zeros are just placeholders 0.04597 / 30.0460 The two leading zeros are not significant digits.

56. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic SIGNIFICANT FIGURES EXACT NUMBERS have no uncertainty NUMBERS from defined relationships counting NUMBERS NUMBERS that are part of reduced simple fractions(1/3, 5/9) 1 foot = 12 inches There are 100 years in a century. = RELIABLE FIGURES

57. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic USING UNITS IN CALCULATIONS FACTOR-UNIT METHOD a systematical approach (a.k.a. FACTOR-LABEL METHOD to solving numerical or DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS) problems. How many inches in 3.0 feet ? (given)(conversion) = answer or Let's take 2.56 quarts and find out how many liters it is.

58. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic USING UNITS IN CALCULATIONS Which of the following is the longest length? 3.005 x 10 3 decimeters 1.522 x 10 -3 megameters 6.563 x 10 4 inches 3.122 x 10 8 micrometers 3.242 x 10 2 feet

59. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic USING UNITS IN CALCULATIONS Which of the following is the longest length? 3.005 x 10 3 decimeters 1.522 x 10 -3 megameters 6.563 x 10 4 inches 3.122 x 10 8 micrometers 3.242 x 10 2 feet

60. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic USING UNITS IN CALCULATIONS Which of the following is the longest length? 3.005 x 10 3 decimeters 1.522 x 10 -3 megameters 6.563 x 10 4 inches 3.122 x 10 8 micrometers 3.242 x 10 2 feet

61. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic USING UNITS IN CALCULATIONS Which of the following is the longest length? 3.005 x 10 3 decimeters 1.522 x 10 -3 megameters 6.563 x 10 4 inches 3.122 x 10 8 micrometers 3.242 x 10 2 feet

62. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic USING UNITS IN CALCULATIONS Which of the following is the longest length? 3.005 x 10 3 decimeters 1.522 x 10 -3 megameters 6.563 x 10 4 inches 3.122 x 10 8 micrometers 3.242 x 10 2 feet

63. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic USING UNITS IN CALCULATIONS Which of the following is the longest length? 3.005 x 10 3 decimeters 1.522 x 10 -3 megameters 6.563 x 10 4 inches 3.122 x 10 8 micrometers 3.242 x 10 2 feet

64. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic USING UNITS IN CALCULATIONS Which of the following is the longest length? 3.005 x 10 3 decimeters 1.522 x 10 -3 megameters 6.563 x 10 4 inches 3.122 x 10 8 micrometers 3.242 x 10 2 feet

65. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic USING UNITS IN CALCULATIONS Temperature Conversion °C = (100/180) X (°F - 32) °F = (1.8 X °C) + 32 °K = °C + 273.15 °C = °K - 273.15 °K = [(100/180) X (°F - 32)] + 273.15 °F = [1.8 X (°K - 273.15)] + 32 Conversion Factors for Units of Weight or Mass 1 grain = 64 milligrams 1 ounce = 28.35 grams 1 pound = 0.45 kilogram 1 gram = 0.035 ounce 1 kilogram= 2.205 pounds 1 metric ton = 1.1 short ton Standard 1 lb = 0.45359237 kg 1 kg = 2.204622621849 lb 1 kg = 35.27396194958 oz Conversion Factors for Units of Volume 1 cubic inch = 16.4 cubic centimeters 1 cubic foot = 0.0283 cubic meter 1 cubic yard = 0.765 cubic meter 1 fluid ounce = 29.6 milliliters 1 U.S. pint = 0.473 liter 1 U.S. quart = 0.946 liter 1 U.S. gallon = 3.8 liters 1 cubic centimeter = 0.06 cubic inch 1 cubic meter = 1.3 cubic yards 1 milliliter = 0.034 fluid ounce 1 liter = 1.06 U.S.quarts Conversion Factors for Units of Length 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 1 foot = 0.305 meter 1 yard = 0.914 meter 1 mile = 1.609 kilometers 1 nautical mile = 1.852 kilometers 1 centimeter = 0.39 inch 1 meter = 39.37 inches = 3.28 feet = 1.094 yards 1 kilometer = 0.62 miles

66. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER Matter exists in three distinct physical states: GAS LIQUID and SOLID

67. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER Gases take the shape of a container and fully fill the (closed) container – i.e. have the same volume as the inside of the container. Solids retain the shape regardless of the size or shape of the container they are in. Liquids take the shape of a container, but retain their volume.

68. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER Scientific models are explanation of observed behaviour. A MODEL OF MATTER All matter is made up of particles that are too small to see. These particles are named MOLECULES. MOLECULES are the smallest particle of pure substance that has properties of that substance and is capable of stable independent existence. MOLECULE is the limit of physical subdivision for a pure substance. Any further separation has to be done chemically creating new entities that would not have the properties of the larger sample. The smaller particles that make up MOLECULES are called ATOMS. Basic concepts of MODEL OF MATTER :

69. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER A MODEL OF MATTER 3. Compounds consisted of atoms of different elements combined together. 4. Compounds have constant composition because they contain a fixed ratio of atoms and each atom has its own characteristic weight, thus fixing the weight ratio of one element to the other. 5. Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement, separation or combinations of atoms, but the atoms are never created or destroyed John Dalton developed first ATOMIC THEORY (1808). 1. Elements (and all matter ) consist of tiny particles called atoms. 2. All atoms of an element are identical and they have the same mass. The reason elements differ from one another is that atoms of each element are different from one another; in particular, they have different masses.

70. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER A MODEL OF MATTER John Dalton developed first ATOMIC THEORY (1808). Various atoms and molecules as depicted in John Dalton's A New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808).

71. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER A MODEL OF MATTER carbon dioxide nitrogen carbon monoxide ammonia diatomic molecules homoatomic heteroatomic triatomic polyatomic

72. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER water, sugar, table salt, carbohydrates, electrolytes (110 mg sodium, 30 mg potassium, 93 mg chloride), high fructose corn syrup, artificial colors, glucose, fructose

73. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER

74. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER PURE SUBSTANCE Matter that has constant composition and fixed properties ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS

75. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER MIXTURE Physical blend of matter that technically can be physically separated into two or more components HOMOGENEOUS MATTER Matter that has the same properties throughout the sample HETEROGENEOUS MATTER Matter with properties that are not the same throughout the sample

76. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic MATTER MIXTURE Physical blend of matter that technically can be Physically separated into two or more components HOMOGENEOUS MATTER Matter that has the same properties throughout the sample SOLUTION Homogeneous mixture of two or more pure substances

77. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic DENSITY Each box has the same volume. If each ball has the same mass, which box would weigh more? Why?

78. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic DENSITY Each box has the same volume. If each ball has the same mass, which box would weigh more? Why? The box that has more balls has more mass per unit of volume. This property of matter is called density. The density of a material helps to distinguish it from other materials.

79. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic DENSITY Each box has the same volume. If each ball has the same mass, which box would weigh more? Why? The box that has more balls has more mass per unit of volume. This property of matter is called density. The density of a material helps to distinguish it from other materials. mass m density ------------ = ------ = d volume V High density : iron, lead, gold Low density : styrofoam, fat, wood MaterialDensity (gm/cm 3 ) Water at 4 o C1.0000 Water at 20 o C0.998 Ice at 0 o C0.92 Gasoline0.70 Mercury13.6 Milk1.03 Magnesium1.7 Aluminum2.7 Copper8.3-9.0 Gold19.3 Air0.001293 Carbon dioxide0.001977 Carbon monoxide0.00125 Hydrogen0.00009 Helium0.000178 Nitrogen0.001251

80. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic DENSITY mass m density ------------ = ------ = d volume V Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of a given solid or liquid substance to the density of water at a specific temperature and pressure, typically at 4°C (39°F) and 1 atm (760.00 mmHg), making it a dimensionless quantity. d substance SG = ---------- d water Balsa wood has a specific gravity of 0.2, so it is 0.2 times as dense as water. Aluminum has a specific gravity of 2.7, so it is 2.7 times as dense as water. Lead has a specific gravity of 11.35, so it is 11.35 times as dense as water. Mercury has a specific gravity of 13.56, so it is 13.56 times as dense as water.

81. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic

82. MATTER

83. El Camino College Chemistry 21A Dr. Dragan Marinkovic