1. Sampling Design

2. How do we gather data? Surveys Opinion polls Interviews Studies
Observational
Retrospective (past)
Prospective (future)
Experiments

3. Population
the entire group of individuals that we want information about

4. Census
a complete count of the population

5. Sample
A part of the population that we actually examine in order to gather information
Use sample to generalize to population

6. Sampling design
refers to the method used to choose the sample from the population

7. Sampling frame
a list of every individual in the population

8. Simple Random Sample (SRS)
Suppose we were to take an SRS of 100 SHS students – put each students’ name in a hat. Then randomly select 100 names from the hat. Each student has the same chance to be selected!
Not only does each student has the same chance to be selected – but every possible group of 100 students has the same chance to be selected! Therefore, it has to be possible for all 100 students to be seniors in order for it to be an SRS!
consist of n individuals from the population chosen in such a way that
every individual has an equal chance of being selected
every set of n individuals has an equal chance of being selected

9. Stratified random sample
Homogeneous groups are groups that are alike based upon some characteristic of the group members.
Suppose we were to take a stratified random sample of 100 SHS students. Since students are already divided by grade level, grade level can be our strata. Then randomly select 50 seniors and randomly select 50 juniors.
population is divided into homogeneous groups called strata
SRS’s are pulled from each stratum

10. Cluster Sample based upon location
Suppose we want to do a cluster sample of SHS students. One way to do this would be to randomly select 10 classrooms during 2nd period. Sample all students in those rooms!
based upon location
randomly pick a location & sample all there

11. Systematic random sample
Suppose we want to do a systematic random sample of SHS students - number a list of students
(There are approximately 2000 students – if we want a sample of 100, 2000/100 = 20)
Select a number between 1 and 20 at random. That student will be the first student chosen, then choose every 20th student from there.
select sample by following a systematic approach
randomly select where to begin

12. Multistage sample
To use a multistage approach to sampling SHS students, we could first divide 2nd period classes by level (AP, Honors, Regular, etc.) and randomly select 4 second period classes from each group. Then we could randomly select 5 students from each of those classes. The selection process is done in stages!
select successively smaller groups within the population in stages
SRS used at each stage

13. Identify the sampling design
1)The Educational Testing Service (ETS) needed a sample of colleges. ETS first divided all colleges into groups of similar types (small public, small private, etc.) Then they randomly selected 3 colleges from each group.
Stratified random sample

14. Identify the sampling design
2) A county commissioner wants to survey people in her district to determine their opinions on a particular law up for adoption. She decides to randomly select blocks in her district and then survey all who live on those blocks.
Cluster sampling

15. Identify the sampling design
3) A local restaurant manager wants to survey customers about the service they receive. Each night the manager randomly chooses a number between 1 & 10. He then gives a survey to that customer, and to every 10th customer after them, to fill it out before they leave.
Systematic random sampling

16. Numbers can be read across.
Random digit table
Numbers can be read vertically.
The following is part of the random digit table found on page 847 of your textbook:
Row
Numbers can be read diagonally.
each entry is equally likely to be any of the 10 digits
digits are independent of each other

17. Ignore. Ignore. Ignore. Ignore.
Suppose your population consisted of these 20 people:
1) Aidan 6) Fred 11) Kathy 16) Paul
2) Bob 7) Gloria 12) Lori 17) Shawnie
3) Chico 8) Hannah 13) Matthew 18) Tracy
4) Doug 9) Israel 14) Nan 19) Uncle Sam
5) Edward 10) Jung 15) Opus 20) Vernon
Use the following random digits to select a sample of five from these people.
We will need to use double digit random numbers, ignoring any number greater than 20. Start with Row 1 and read across.
1) Aidan
13) Matthew
18) Tracy
5) Edward
15) Opus
Ignore.
Ignore.
Ignore.
Ignore.
Stop when five people are selected. So my sample would consist of :
Aidan, Edward, Matthew, Opus, and Tracy
Row

18. Bias A systematic error in measuring the estimate
favors certain outcomes
Anything that causes the data to be wrong! It might be attributed to the researchers, the respondent, or to the sampling method!

19. Sources of Bias things that can cause bias in your sample
cannot do anything with bad data

20. Undercoverage
People with unlisted phone numbers – usually high-income families
some groups of population are left out of the selection process
People without phone numbers –usually low-income families
Suppose you take a sample by randomly selecting names from the phone book – some groups will not have the opportunity of being selected!
People with ONLY cell phones – usually young adults

21. Remember – the way to determine voluntary response is:
People chose to respond
Usually only people with very strong opinions respond
An example would be the surveys in magazines that ask readers to mail in the survey. Other examples are call-in shows, American Idol, etc.
Remember, the respondent selects themselves to participate in the survey!
Remember – the way to determine voluntary response is:
Self-selection!!

22. Nonresponse
Because of huge telemarketing efforts in the past few years, telephone surveys have a MAJOR problem with nonresponse!
occurs when an individual chosen for the sample can’t be contacted or refuses to cooperate
telephone surveys 70% nonresponse
People are chosen by the researchers, BUT refuse to participate.
NOT self-selected!
This is often confused with voluntary response!
One way to help with the problem of nonresponse is to make follow contact with the people who are not home when you first contact them.

23. Response bias
Suppose we wanted to survey high school students on drug abuse and we used a uniformed police officer to interview each student in our sample – would we get honest answers?
occurs when the behavior of respondent or interviewer causes bias in the sample
wrong answers
Response bias occurs when for some reason (interviewer’s or respondent’s fault) you get incorrect answers.

24. Convenience sampling Ask people who are easy to ask
The data obtained by a convenience sample will be biased – however this method is often used for surveys & results reported in newspapers and magazines!
Ask people who are easy to ask
Produces bias results
An example would be stopping friendly-looking people in the mall to survey. Another example is the surveys left on tables at restaurants - a convenient method!

25. Wording of the Questions
The level of vocabulary should be appropriate for the population you are surveying
Questions must be worded as neutral as possible to avoid influencing the response.
wording can influence the answers that are given
connotation of words
use of “big” words or technical words
– if surveying Podunk, AR, then you should avoid complex vocabulary.
– if surveying doctors, then use more complex, technical wording.

26. Measurement or Response bias Nonresponse bias
1. A uniformed policeman interviews a group of 50 college freshmen. He asks each one his or her name and then if he or she as used an illegal drug in the last month.
Selection bias
Measurement or Response bias
Nonresponse bias
Systematic rejection bias

27. 2. A survey about the food in the school cafeteria was conducted by passing out questionnaires to students as they entered the cafeteria. A drop box for completed forms was on a table by the cash register.
Selection bias
Measurement or Response bias
Nonresponse bias
Systematic rejection bias

28. Measurement or Response bias Nonresponse bias
3. The magazine Harley Davidson Today sent a survey to its subscribers asking whom they admire most in America.
Selection bias
Measurement or Response bias
Nonresponse bias
Systematic rejection bias

29. 4. A poll of parents in Texas found that 90% of parents say they have spoken to their teenagers about the dangers of drinking and driving, while only 45% of those teens say they recall such a discussion.
Selection bias
Measurement or Response bias
Nonresponse bias
Systematic rejection bias

30. Measurement or Response bias Nonresponse bias
5. In a census in Russia, 1.8 million more women than men reported that they were married.
Selection bias
Measurement or Response bias
Nonresponse bias
Systematic rejection bias

31. 6. One year after the Detroit race riots of 1967, interviewers asked a sample of black residents in Detroit if they felt they could trust most white people, some white people, or none at all. When the interviewer was white, 35% answered "most"; when the interviewer was black, 7% answered "most".
Selection bias
Measurement or Response bias
Nonresponse bias
Systematic rejection bias

32. 7. A political party mailed questionnaires to all registered voters in Texas, asking whether or not the party should support the death penalty. The voters mailed the completed questionnaires back in an envelope provided.
Selection bias
Measurement or Response bias
Nonresponse bias
Systematic rejection bias

33. Measurement or Response bias Nonresponse bias
8. The Nielson rating service estimates the popularity of television stations in the Dallas area. Suppose that four times a year, Nielson takes a random sample of about 5000 viewers. Every member of the household over age 12 is asked to fill out a diary, showing what he or she watches every quarter hour from 6:00 am to midnight. Each diarist receives $5 for his or her trouble. At the end of 12 weeks, Nielson tallies the results from the usable diaries - usually between 33% and 50% of the 5000 sent out.
Selection bias
Measurement or Response bias
Nonresponse bias
Systematic rejection bias

34. 9. In the 1936 presidential election, Franklin D
9. In the 1936 presidential election, Franklin D. Roosevelt ran for reelection against Alfred Landon. As it had done since 1916, the Literary Digest, a popular magazine, ran a preelection poll. To obtain its sample, the magazine compiled a list of about 10 million names from sources such as telephone books, lists of automobile owners, club membership lists, and its own subscription lists. All 10 million people received questionnaires, about 2.4 million returned them; these people made up the sample. Literary Digest had correctly predicted the winner in all presidential races since Then in 1936, based on sample responses, the magazine predicted that Landon would win, 57% to 43%. In fact, Roosevelt won, 62% to 38%.
Selection bias
Measurement or Response bias
Nonresponse bias
Systematic rejection bias

35. Which of the following sampling methods produces a simple random sample?
10. From a class of 25 students, the teacher selects the last 5 to enter the room to be in the sample.
Is a simple random sample
Is not a simple random sample

36. 11. From a group of 100 employees, the manager selects those whose phone numbers end in 7.
Is a simple random sample
Is not a simple random sample

37. 12.A large elementary school has 15 classes with 24 children in each classroom. A sample of 30 is chosen by the following procedure: Each of the 15 teachers selects 2 children from his or her classroom to be in the sample by numbering the children from 1 to 24, then using a random digit table to select two different numbers between 01 and 24. The two children with those numbers are in the sample.
Is a simple random sample
Is not a simple random sample

38. 13. Suppose that in a class of 24 there are 12 boys and 12 girls
13. Suppose that in a class of 24 there are 12 boys and 12 girls. The teacher selects 6 students for a sample by numbering the boys from 1 to 12 and the girls from 1 to 12. Then using a random digit table, the first number between 01 and 12 is a boy, the next number between 01 and 12 is a girl and so on until the 6 students are selected.
Is a simple random sample
Is not a simple random sample

39. 14. Suppose that in a class of 24 there are 12 boys and 12 girls
14. Suppose that in a class of 24 there are 12 boys and 12 girls. The teacher selects 6 students for a sample by numbering the boys from 1 to 12 and the girls from 13 to 24. Then she uses a random number table to select 6 two-digit numbers between 01 and 24.
Is a simple random sample
Is not a simple random sample

40. Definitions:
1) Observational study - observe outcomes without imposing any treatment
2) Experiment - actively impose some treatment in order to observe the response

41. 3)Experimental unit – the single individual (person, animal, plant, etc.) to which the different treatments are assigned
4) Factor – is the explanatory variable – it’s what we test
5) Level – a specific value for the factor

42. 6) Response variable – what you measure
7) Treatment – a specific experimental condition applied to the units

43. 8) Control group – a group that is used to compare the factor against; can be a placebo or the “old” or current item
9) Placebo – a “dummy” treatment that can have no physical effect

44. 10) blinding - method used so that units do not know which treatment they are getting
11) double blind - neither the units nor the evaluator know which treatment a subject received

45. Principles of Experimental Design
Control of effects of extraneous variables on the response – by comparing treatment groups to a control group (placebo or “old”)
Replication of the experiment on many subjects to quantify the natural variation in the experiment
Randomization – the use of chance to assign subjects to treatments

46. The ONLY way to show cause & effect is with a well-designed, well-controlled experiment!!!

47. Example 1: A farm-product manufacturer wants to determine if the yield of a crop is different when the soil is treated with three different types of fertilizers. Fifteen similar plots of land are planted with the same type of seed but are fertilized differently. At the end of the growing season, the mean yield from the sample plots is compared.
Experimental units?
Factors?
Levels?
Response variable?
How many treatments?
Plots of land
Type of fertilizer
Fertilizer types A, B, & C
Yield of crop 3

48. Example 2: A consumer group wants to test cake pans to see which works the best (bakes evenly). It will test aluminum, glass, and plastic pans in both gas and electric ovens.
Experiment units?
Factors?
Levels?
Response variable?
Number of treatments?
Cake batter
Two factors - type of pan & type of oven
Type of pan has 3 levels (aluminum, glass, & plastic & type of oven has 2 levels (electric & gas)
How evenly the cake bakes 6

49. Experiment Designs
Completely randomized – all experimental units are allocated at random among all treatments
Random assignment

50. Units should be blocked on a variable that effects the response!!!
Randomized block – units are blocked into groups (homogeneous) and then randomly assigned to treatments
Random assignment
Units should be blocked on a variable that effects the response!!!

51. Matched pairs - a special type of block design
match up experimental units according to similar characteristics & randomly assign on to one treatment & the other automatically gets the 2nd treatment
have each unit do both treatments in random order
the assignment of treatments is dependent

52. 12) Confounding variable – the effect of the confounding variable on the response cannot be separated from the effects of the explanatory variable (factor)

53. Is this an experiment? Why or why not?
Example 5: Four new word-processing programs are to be compared by measuring the speed with which standard tasks can be completed. One hundred volunteers are randomly assigned to one of the four programs and their speeds are measured.
Is this an experiment? Why or why not?
Yes, a treatment is imposed.
Yes, a treatment was imposed
Completely randomized
one factor, word processing program & 4 levels, the four new programs
Speed at which standard tasks can be done
What type of design is this?
Factors? Levels?
Response variable?
Completely randomized
one factor: word-processing program with 4 levels
speed

54. Can this design be improved? Explain.
Example 5: Four new word-processing programs are to be compared by measuring the speed with which standard tasks can be completed. One hundred volunteers are randomly designed to one of the four programs and their speeds are measured.
Is there a potential confounding variable?
You could do a block design where each person uses each program in random order.
a) Speed/expertise of each individual
b) Use a matched pairs design where each volunteer uses all four programs in random order
Can this design be improved? Explain.
NO, completely randomized designs have no confounding

55. Blocking also helps reduce variability.
Randomization reduces bias by spreading any uncontrolled confounding variables evenly throughout the treatment groups.
Is there another way to reduce variability?
Blocking also helps reduce variability.
Bias is a systematic error in measuring the estimate
Variability is controlled by sample size. Larger samples produce statistics with less variability.

56. High bias & high variability
High bias & low variability
Low bias & high variability
Low bias & low variability