1. Market failureslide 1 Externalities and Public Goods Setup: Perfectly competitive markets result in outputs and prices which are socially optimal in the sense of the maximizing surplus (Pareto Optimal). Another way to say this is that competition results in output levels for which marginal social benefit equals marginal social cost. (MSB = MSC)

2. Market failureslide 2 We saw that the presence of monopoly, for example, could justify government interference because monopolies don’t produce output levels where MSB = MSC. But even competitive markets may fail under some circumstances.

3. Market failureslide 3 In what follows, we will examine the conditions under which competitive markets may fail to be optimal institutions to produce and distribute goods. This topic is known as “market failure.”

4. Market failureslide 4 REASONS FOR MARKET FAILURE MONOPOLY POWER EXTERNALITIES PUBLIC GOODS INFORMATION FAILURES

5. Market failureslide 5 EXTERNALITIES IN MORE DETAIL An externality is a benefit or cost to third parties who are not directly involved in a transaction. Externalities are sometimes called neighborhood effects.

6. Market failureslide 6 Externalities can be either beneficial or harmful, and can originate with either consumers or producers. Here are some examples: Hidden slides

7. Market failureslide 7 1) Your consuming cigarettes imposes costs on others nearby in the form of bad smells and dangerous smoke. 2) Midwestern production of electricity from burning fossil fuels causes damaging acid rain in eastern Canada and northern New York. 3) Your wearing perfume or cologne makes others near you feel better off. 4) A dam built for electricity generation provides flood control to farmers and towns downstream.

8. Market failureslide 8 More examples of externalities: 1) North Atlantic fishing 2) Dormitory noise pollution 3) Some kinds of education 4) Vaccinations

9. Market failureslide 9 The existence of an externality creates a difference between either a) the private and social cost of production, or b) the private and social benefits from consumption. The consequence is that even competitive markets will fail to reach a social optimum. How Externalities Work

10. Market failureslide 10 Marginal external cost is the extra social cost (over and above the private cost) of producing one more unit of the good. Marginal external benefit is the extra social benefit of consuming one more unit of a good. The presence of external benefits and costs means there will be a difference between the private and social consequences of production.

11. Market failureslide 11 EXAMPLE 1: Suppose the market in beer is perfectly competitive. But beer production creates terrible odors, and makes people who live downwind from breweries worse off.

12. Market failureslide 12 Here’s the situation for a typical beer producer: MPC is the Marginal Private Cost of production. It’s the same as the firm’s supply curve, showing willingness to sell. MPB is the Marginal Private Benefit. It's the demand curve for the good, showing willingness to pay. $/Q Q Demand = MPB Supply = MPC Q* A competitive market will lead to Q*.

13. Market failureslide 13 The existence of a harmful externality means there is a difference between the private and social costs of producing beer. The difference between private and social cost is the marginal external cost (MEC)

14. Market failureslide 14 $/Q Q Demand = MPB Supply = MPC Q* Marginal social cost = MPC + MEC This distance is the pollution cost of one more unit of beer.

15. Market failureslide 15 $/Q Q Demand = MPB Supply = MPC Q* Marginal social cost = MPC + MEC This area is the total pollution cost when Q* is produced.

16. Market failureslide 16 $/Q Q Demand = MPB = MSB Supply = MPC Q* Marginal social cost = MPC + MEC Q(society) The socially best output is Q(society).

17. Market failureslide 17 $/Q Q Demand = MPB Supply = MPC Q* Marginal social cost = MPC + MEC This area is the total pollution cost when Q(society) is produced. Q(society)

18. Market failureslide 18 The conclusion is that when an externality is present, even a competitive beer market will not produce the best amount of beer. In this example too much beer is produced from society’s point of view.

19. Market failureslide 19 EXAMPLE 2: Prof. Brown is trying to decide how much schooling to buy for his daughter. He will buy years of schooling up to point where the last unit bought is just worth it to him. But schooling, especially at the elementary level, has positive externalities.

20. Market failureslide 20 YEARS OF SCHOOLING $/Q Q MPB MPC = MSC Q* Brown will choose years of schooling by equating MPB with MPC.

21. Market failureslide 21 But the extra (external) benefits from schooling mean that Brown will buy too little schooling for his daughter if left to his own devices. YEARS OF SCHOOLING $/Q Q MPB MPC = MSC Q* MSB=MPB+MEB Q(Society) This distance is the marginal external benefit.

22. Market failureslide 22 EXAMPLE 3: People decide whether or not to get vaccinated against diseases by comparing the private benefits with the private costs. But vaccinations carry important external benefits because when you are vaccinated people cannot get the illness from you.

23. Market failureslide 23 The horizontal axis here represents the number of people getting vaccinated. People will get vaccinated only if the benefit to them is at least as great as the cost. THE MARKET IN SMALLPOX VACCINATIONS # of people $/person MPB = DEMAND MSC=MPC MSB N’N* N’ is the private amount demanded. Society would want N* people vaccinated.

24. Market failureslide 24 Solutions to externalities problems: 1) Economists generally favor taxes and subsidies linked to the value of the externality 2) Direct regulation 3) Subsidize pollution control equipment 4) Sell or grant tradable pollution rights. 5) Coase’s Theorem -- Assign property rights 6) Internalize the externality through mergers

25. Market failureslide 25 A pure public good is a good or service that is consumed in its entirety by everyone. When one person consumes another unit of a public good we all consume more. The most common example is national defense. PUBLIC GOODS IN MORE DETAIL

26. Market failureslide 26 Public goods have two special properties compared to private consumption goods. Nonrivalry: When one person consumes a unit of a public good the amount available to be consumed by everyone else is not diminished. Nonexcludability: Once a public good is produced it is difficult or impossible to exclude people from consuming it.

27. Market failureslide 27 Because public goods are nonrival and/or nonexcludable, these goods will tend to be under produced, or maybe not produced at all if left to the private market. Public goods are not the same as publicly provided goods. Just because government provides a good does not make it a public good.

28. Market failureslide 28 Examples of public goods: Hidden slide

29. Market failureslide 29 1) On the air TV and radio signals 2) Public parks without an admission fee 3) Freeways not during rush hour 4) Clean air 5) Ideas

30. Market failureslide 30 Some public goods can be excludable but not rival: 1) Crossing a toll bridge when it isn’t crowded. 2) Scrambled on the air TV signals. One way to explain nonrivalry in consumption is by saying that the marginal cost of providing the good to one more consumer is zero.

31. Market failureslide 31 Some public goods may be nonexcludable but rival: 1) Air that is polluted by smoking. 2) The ocean is not excludable, but fishing is rival. Production of public goods is sometimes said to suffer from the “free rider problem.” This arises directly from the nonexcludability property of public goods.

32. Market failureslide 32 Public good summary: If public goods are produced in private markets, they will be under produced because social benefits will exceed private benefits.

33. Market failureslide 33 Solutions to the public goods problem: 1) Using technologies that provide for exclusion (toll roads, cable TV) 2) Government ownership 3) Clubs or cooperatives

34. Market failureslide 34 INFORMATION FAILURES IN MORE DETAIL Information failures occur when one party to a transaction lacks information on product quality, or cannot monitor the behavior of a person with whom they have a contract. Note that information failures result from asymmetric or lopsided information about products or actions, not just the absence of information.

35. Market failureslide 35 The usual way to deal with uncertainty or lack of perfect information is to buy insurance of some sort. Examples: Health insurance Fire and theft insurance

36. Market failureslide 36 Adverse selection occurs when one party to a contract has better information than the other party. Adverse selection is sometimes called the problem of hidden characteristics. Examples: Health insurance. Life insurance. Used cars. Used computers.

37. Market failureslide 37 When there is adverse selection, insurance markets will fail to provide the socially best amount of insurance at fair rates. People who would be willing to pay fair prices for health insurance may find themselves unable to do so.

38. Market failureslide 38 In the case of asymmetric information in markets for used cars or used computers the consequence is that only bad ones (lemons) will be traded. People willing to pay a fair price for a good used car or computer will be unable to find one.

39. Market failureslide 39 Solutions to the problem of adverse selection. Many of the solutions employ what economists call signaling. 1) Market search 2) Consumer Reports Magazine 3) Reputation 4) Standardization (McD’s, Holiday Inn) 5) Warranties and guarantees 6) Physical exams for life insurance 7) Pooling through groups for health insurance

40. Market failureslide 40 Some governmental solutions: Licensing of occupations National health care “Lemons” laws

41. Market failureslide 41 Moral hazard occurs when it is difficult or impossible to monitor the actions of a person with whom you have a contract. It is sometimes referred to as the problem of hidden actions, or the failure to take care.

42. Market failureslide 42 Examples of moral hazard: 1) Getting an employee to do your bidding (the problem of shirking). 2) You buy fire insurance and stop replacing the batteries in the smoke detectors. 3) You sign an apartment lease that includes heat, and you leave the door open all winter. 4) You buy life insurance and then commit suicide. 5) You can’t buy “human capital payoff” insurance.

43. Market failureslide 43 Solutions to the problem of moral hazard. Generally, the problem can be solved by creating appropriate incentives. 1) Worker commissions based on performance. 2) Copayments and deductibles in insurance contracts. 3) Leases that provide incentives for good care of the premises.