1. Chapter 9: Nuclear Chemistry
Radioactivity
Nuclear Equations
Radiation Detection
Half-Life
Medical Applications
Fission & Fusion

2. Average Atomic weight of Hydrogen
Isotopes of Hydrogen
Isotopes = Atoms of the same element but having different masses. 1 2 1 3 1 H H H + - + - + -
Protium
99.99%
Tritium
Trace %
Deuterium
0.01%
Average Atomic weight of Hydrogen
= amu

3. Average Atomic weight of C= 12.011 amu
Isotopes of Carbon C 6 12 C 6 13 C 6 14 - - + - + - + -
98.89%
1.11%
Trace %
Average Atomic weight of C= amu

4. So falls apart (decays) Giving radioactive particles
Radioactive Isotopes 3 1 H C 6 14 - + + - -
Hydrogen-3
Carbon-14
Nucleus is unstable
So falls apart (decays)
Giving radioactive particles

5. Radioactive Isotopes in Medicine
123 53 I
Diagnose thyroid function
131 53 I
Treat hyperthyroid
(destroys cells) 60 27 Co
Destroy tumors
(g radiation) Tc 43
99m
Diagnose bone, tissue
(most common)

6. Alpha Decay He a Particle Po Pb Po Pb He + 4 2 210 84 + 82 206 210 84

7. - Beta Decay e C b Particle N n H e -1 14 6 + + - + 7 14 1 1 -1 +-1 e - 14 6 C
b Particle +
+ - + N 7 14 1 n 1 H -1 e +
neutron
proton
electron

8. - Beta Decay e C b Particle N N e C -1 14 6 + + - + 14 7 14 14 -1 6 7-1 e - 14 6 C
b Particle +
+ - + N 7 14 14 6 C N 7 14 -1 e +

9. Gamma Decay
99m 43 Tc
g decay + + 99 43 Tc
99m 43 Tc Tc 43 99 g +

11. Radiation knocks off an electron
Ionizing Radiation
Radiation knocks off an electron -
An ion
A radical
Ions & radicals cause damaging chain reactions

12. Radiation knocks off an electron Ions detected by Counter
Geiger Counter
Radiation knocks off an electron -
An ion
Gas in instrument tube
Ions detected by Counter

14. Radiation: Penetration through Air+
4 cm b
6-300 cm -
400 m g

15. Tissue Penetration Depth+
0.05 mm mm b -
>50 cm g

16. - Radiation: Shielding a b g Heavy Cloth Pb, thick concrete+
Pb, thick concrete
Paper Cloth b - g

17. a: Radon gas in Buildings
Nuclear Equations
a: Radon gas in Buildings
226 88
222 4 2 He Ra Rn + 86
Gas
218 4 2 He Po + 84
Cancer

18. b: Thyroid check & treatment
Nuclear Equations
b: Cancer Treatment 60 27 Co 60 -1 e Ni + 28
b: Thyroid check & treatment
131 53 I
131 -1 e Xe + 54

19. Radiation Detection Activity Curie (Ci):
# of disintegrations
by of 1g Ra
Curie (Ci):
1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010disintegrations
sec
Becquerel (Bq)
1 Bq = 1 disintegration
sec

20. Radiation Detection
Absorbed Dose

21. - Radiation Detection: Biological Effect Tissue Penetration Depth a b+ a - b g
Tissue Penetration Depth
0.05 mm mm
>50 cm
Radiation Absorbed Dose (Rad) (D):
1 rad = 1 x 10-2 J
kg tissue
1 rad = 2.4 x 10-3 cal
kg tissue

22. - Tissue Penetration Depth a b g 0.05 mm 0.06-5 mm >50 cm+
0.05 mm mm b -
>50 cm g
Radiation Absorbed Dose (Rad) (D):
1 Gray = 1 J
kg tissue
100 rad = 1 Gray

23. Radiation Detection
Biological Damage

24. Radiation Equivalent for Man (rem)
RBE 20 1 a b g
1 Rem = 1 Rad x RBE
relative biological effectiveness

25. Annual Radiation Exposure in USA
Total = 170 mrem / yr
Cosmic = 40 mrem
Air, H2O, Food = 30 mrem
X-rays: Chest = 50 mrem
Dental = 20
Smoking = 35 mrem
TV = 2 mrem
Radon = 200 mrem
Wood,concrete,bricks = 50 mrem
Ground = 15 mrem

26. Biological Effects of Radiation
Dose in rem (at one time)
0-25 genetic damage possible but usually undetected
decrease # of white blood cells (temporary)
mild radiation sickness (vomit, diarrhea, strong decrease # white blood cells)
>300 (diarrhea, hair loss, infection)
500 LD50 for humans

27. Biological Effects of Radiation
Dose in rem
300 LD50 for dogs
800 LD50 for rats
50,000 LD50 for Bacterium
100,000 LD50 for Insects
500 LD50 for humans

28. Therapeutic Doses of Radiation
Dose in rem
4, Lymphoma
5,000 – 6,000 Skin cancer
6, Lung cancer
6,000 – Brain Tumor

29. FDA approved killing of bacteria with:
0.3 – 1 kGy ionizing radiation from
Co-60 or Cs-137
(gamma producers)
Strawberries left on counter for 2 weeks.
The irradiated berries on right show no spoilage.

30. Half-Life I t1/2 = Time for 1/2 sample to decay 131 53 5 g 10 g 20 g
8 days
131 53 I
8 days
5 g
10 g
20 g

31. - + Positron Emission Tomography (PET) e C e 2g rays b+ Positron-1 e
electron 11 6 C +1 e - +
2g rays
b+ Positron +
Detectable
g rays  image
Shows blood flow + B 5 11 11 6 11 5 B +1 e C +
positron

32. PET Scans
Normal
Alzheimer's

34. Known in Britain by the trade name ‘Pedoscope’
Known in Britain by the trade name ‘Pedoscope’. The machine produced an X-ray of the customer’s foot inside a shoe to ensure shoes fitted accurately, which both increased the wear-time of the shoe and with that, the reputation of the shoe shop. The customer placed their foot over an X-ray tube contained within the wooden base of the Pedoscope. From this, a beam of X-rays passed through the foot and cast an image onto a fluorescent screen above. The screen could be observed via three viewing points – one for the shoe-fitter, one for the customer, and one for a third party (usually the guardian of a child being fitted). The accommodation for three viewing points may seem a little extravagant, but it may be an indication of the popularity of the Pedoscope and the interest the public had in the machine.

36. Shoe-Fitting Fluoroscope (ca. 1930-1940)
Basic Description
The shoe fitting fluoroscope was a common fixture in shoe stores during the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s. A typical unit, like the Adrian machine shown here, consisted of a vertical wooden cabinet with an opening near the bottom into which the feet were placed. When you looked through one of the three viewing ports on the top of the cabinet (e.g., one for the child being fitted, one for the child's parent, and the third for the shoe salesman or saleswoman), you would see a fluorescent image of the bones of the feet and the outline of the shoes.

38. Fission Energy Kr U U n Ba Splitting atoms for Energy 91 36 235 92 236n
Energy +
unstable
142 56 Ba
Uses:
Atomic Bomb
Nuclear Power

39. Fission
Need critical mass of U-235 to sustain chain reaction to produce enough Energy for an explosion

40. Fission U-235 Nuclear Power plants: Controlled fission
avoids critical mass

41. Uranium oxide pellet used in nuclear fuel rods.
Uranium is the fuel of the nuclear power plant in the US.  However, we can not just dump uranium into the core like we shovel coal into a furnace.  The uranium must be processed and formed into fuel pellets, which are about the size of a pencil eraser.  The fuel pellets are then stacked inside hollow metal tubes to form fuel rods.  Fuel rods are 11 to 25 feet in length. 
Each UO2 pellet has the energy equivalent to burning 136 gal of oil, 2.5 tons of wood, or 1 ton of coal.

44. Trojan Nuclear Power Plant – Rainier, Oregon44

45. May 21, 2006

46. Trojan Nuclear Reactor– Rainier, Oregon46

47. Uranium oxide pellet used in nuclear fuel rods.
Uranium is the fuel of the nuclear power plant in the US.  However, we can not just dump uranium into the core like we shovel coal into a furnace.  The uranium must be processed and formed into fuel pellets, which are about the size of a pencil eraser.  The fuel pellets are then stacked inside hollow metal tubes to form fuel rods.  Fuel rods are 11 to 25 feet in length. 
Each UO2 pellet has the energy equivalent to burning 136 gal of oil, 2.5 tons of wood, or 1 ton of coal.

48. Yucca Mountain in Nevada – site for nuclear depository?

49. Conceptual Design of Yucca Mountain Disposal Plan
Canisters of waste, sealed in special casks, are shipped to the site by truck or train.
Shipping casks are removed, and the inner tube with the waste is placed in a steel, multilayered storage container.
An automated system sends storage containers underground to the tunnels.
Containers are stored along the tunnels, on their side.

51. Pros Department of Energy (DOE)
In a desert location
Isolated away from population centers (Las Vegas, the nearest metropolitan area, is 90 miles away)
Secured 1,000 feet under the surface
In a closed hydrologic basin
Surrounded by federal land
Protected by natural geologic barriers
Protected by robust engineered barriers and a flexible design

52. Cons: Nevada's Agency for Nuclear Projects
Yucca's location in an active seismic (earthquake) region
the presence of numerous earthquake faults (at least 33 in and around the site) and volcanic cinder cones near the site
the presence of pathways (numerous interconnecting faults and fractures) that could move groundwater (and any escaping radioactive materials) rapidly through the site to the aquifer beneath and from there to the accessible environment.
evidence of hydrothermal activity within the proposed repository block

53. Putting end to Yucca Mountain project ‘within reach,’ state commission says
Jan. 21, 2013