1. Chapter 4 Compounds and Their Bonds
4.1
Octet Rule and Ions
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2. Ionic and Covalent Bonds
Atoms that are not noble gases form octets
to become more stable
by losing, gaining, or sharing valence electrons
by forming ionic bonds or covalent bonds
Ionic bonds occur when atoms of one element lose
valence electrons and the atoms of another element
gain valence electrons.
Covalent bonds occur when nonmetal atoms share
electrons to attain a noble gas arrangement.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

3. The Octet Rule An octet is eight valence electrons
is associated with the stability of the noble gases (except He)
The octet rule states that elements gain or lose electrons
and become ions to attain noble gas arrangement.
valence electrons He
Ne 2, 8 8
Ar 2, 8, 8 8
Kr 2, 8, 14, 8 8
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4. Ionic and Covalent Bonds
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5. Metals Form Positive Ions
by a loss of their valence electrons
with the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas
that have fewer electrons than protons
Group 1A metals ion 1+
Group 2A metals ion 2+
Group 3A metals ion 3+
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6. Formation of Magnesium Ion, Mg2+
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

7. Nonmetals Form Negative Ions
by a gain of valence electrons
with the electron configuration of the nearest noble gas
with fewer protons than electrons
Group 5A nonmetals ion 3−
Group 6A nonmetals ion 2−
Group 7A nonmetals ion 1−
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8. Formation of Chloride Ion, Cl−
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9. Formulas and Names of Common Ions
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10. Learning Check
Write the formula and symbol of an ion with 16 protons and 18 electrons.
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11. Solution
Write the formula and symbol of an ion with 16 protons and 18 electrons. The element with 16 protons is sulfur, with the symbol S. An ion of sulfur with 18 electrons gives sulfur a charge of 2−. The sulfide ion is S2−.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

12. Ionic Charges from Group Numbers
Group Charge
Group 1A 1+
Group 2A 2+ Positive Charges
Group 3A 3+
Group 5A 3−
Group 6A 2− Negative Charges
Group 7A 1−
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13. Ionic Charges from Group Numbers
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14. Learning Check
Consider the elements calcium and chlorine. A. Identify each as a metal or a nonmetal. B. State the number of valence electrons for each. C. State the number of electrons that must be lost or gained for each to acquire an octet. D. Write the symbol, including its ionic charge, and name of each resulting ion.
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15. Solution
Consider the elements calcium and chlorine. A. Identify each as a metal or a nonmetal. metal = calcium nonmetal = chlorine B. State the number of valence electrons for each. Calcium has two valence electrons. Chlorine has seven valence electrons.
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16. Solution
C. State the number of electrons that must be lost or gained for each to acquire an octet. Calcium will lose 2 electrons to acquire an octet. Chlorine will gain 1 electron to acquire an octet. D. Write the symbol, including its ionic charge, and name of each resulting ion. Ca2+ calcium Cl− chloride
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

17. Chapter 4 Compounds and Their Bonds
4.2
Ionic Compounds
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18. Properties of Ionic Compounds
consist of positive and negative ions
have attractions called ionic bonds between positively and negatively charged ions
have high melting points
are solid at room temperature
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19. NaCl Is an Ionic Compound
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

20. Formulas of Ionic Compounds
An ionic formula
consists of positively and negatively charged ions
is neutral
has charge balance
total positive charge = total negative charge
The symbol of the metal is written first, followed by the symbol of the nonmetal.
metal symbol, nonmetal symbol
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21. Subscripts in Formulas
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22. Writing Ionic Formulas from Ion Charges
Subscripts in ionic compound represent the number of positive and negative ions that give an overall charge of zero.
total positive charge + total negative charge = 0
therefore,
total positive charge = total negative charge
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23. Charge Balance for Na2S In Na2S
2 Na atoms lose their valence electrons to become Na+ ions
an S atom gains 2 electrons to become an S2− ion
subscripts indicate number of each ions to give charge balance
total positive charge = total negative charge
Na+
Na+ + S2− = Na2S
2(1+) = 2−
Write the symbol of the metal first followed by a subscript
of 2 and then the symbol of the nonmetal. 2
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24. Charge Balance for Na2S
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

25. Writing an Ionic Formula for Na3N
Charge balance is used to write the formula for sodium nitride, a compound containing Na+ and N3−.
Na+
3 Na N3− = Na3N
3(+1) (3−) = 0
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

26. Learning Check
Write the ionic formula of the compound formed with Ba2+ and Cl− ions.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

27. Solution
Write the ionic formula of the compound formed with Ba2+ and Cl− ions. Write the symbols of the ions: Ba2+ Cl− Balance the charges: Ba Cl− Cl− = BaCl (1−) = 0 Write the ionic formula using a subscript 2 for two chloride ions.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

28. Learning Check
Select the correct formula for each of the following ionic compounds. A. Na+ and O2− 1) NaO 2) Na2O 3) NaO2 B. Al3+ and Cl− 1) AlCl3 2) AlCl 3) Al3Cl C. Mg2+ and N3− 1) MgN 2) Mg2N3 3) Mg3N2
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29. Solution
Select the correct formula for each of the following ionic compounds. A. Na+ and O2− 2) Na2O Check: 2Na+ + O2− = 2(1+) + 1(2−) = 0 B. Al3+ and Cl− 1) AlCl3 Check: Al3+ + 3Cl− = (3+) + 3(1−) = 0 C. Mg2+ and N3− 3) Mg3N2 Check: 3Mg2+ + 2N3− = 2(3+) + 2(3−) = 0
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

30. Chapter 4 Compounds and Their Bonds
4.3
Naming and Writing Ionic Formulas
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31. Names of Some Ionic Compounds
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

32. Naming Ionic Compounds Containing Two Elements
Metals that form a single ion include the following:
Metal(s) Ion Charge
Group 1A 1+
Group 2A 2+
Al 3+
Zn and Cd 2+
Ag 1+
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33. Naming Ionic Compounds
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

34. Naming the Ionic Compound K2O
Name the ionic compound K2O.
Step 1 Identify the cation and anion. The cation, K+, is from Group 1A, and the anion, O2−, is from Group 6A.
Step 2 Name the cation by its element name. The cation, K+, is potassium.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

35. Naming the Ionic Compound K2O
Name the ionic compound K2O.
Step 3 Name the anion by using the first syllable of its element name followed by ide. The anion, O2−, is oxide.
Step 4 Write the name of the cation first and the name of the anion second. K2O is named potassium oxide.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

36. Learning Check Write the names of the following compounds.
A. CaO ___________
B. Al2O3 ___________
C. MgCl2 ___________
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

37. Solution Write the names of the following compounds.
Step 1 Identify the cation and anion.
A. CaO: The cation, Ca2+, is from Group 2A, and the anion, O2−, is from Group 6A.
B. Al2O3: The cation, Al3+, is from Group 3A, and the anion, O2−, is from Group 6A.
C. MgCl2: The cation, Mg2+, is from Group 2A, and the anion, Cl−, is from Group 7A.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

38. Solution Write the names of the following compounds:
Step 2 Name the cation by its element name.
A. CaO The cation, Ca2+, is calcium.
B. Al2O3 The cation, Al3+, is aluminum.
C. MgCl2 The cation, Mg2+, is magnesium.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

39. Solution Write the names of the following compounds.
Step 3 Name the anion by using the first syllable of its element name followed by ide.
A. CaO The anion, O2−, is oxide.
B. Al2O3 The anion, O2−, is oxide.
C. MgCl2 The anion, Cl−, is chloride.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

40. Solution Write the names of the following compounds:
Step 4 Write the name of the cation first and the name of the anion second.
A. The name of CaO is calcium oxide.
B. The name of Al2O3 is aluminum oxide.
C. The name of MgCl2 is magnesium chloride.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

41. Learning Check
Write the formulas and names for compounds of the following ions:
Br− S2− N3−
Na+
Al3+
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

42. Solution
Write the formulas and names for compounds of the following ions:
Br− S2− N3−
NaBr Na2S Na3N
Na+ sodium bromide sodium sulfide sodium nitride
AlBr Al2S AlN
Al3+ aluminum aluminum aluminum bromide sulfide nitride
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43. Metals That Form More Than One Cation
Transition metals except for Zn2+, Cd2+, and Ag+ form two or more positive ions (cations).
We use a Roman numeral to identify ionic charge.
Cu2+ copper(II) Pb2+ lead(II)
Cu+ copper(I) Pb4+ lead(IV)
Fe2+ iron(II) Cr3+ chromium(III)
Fe3+ iron(III) Cr6+ chromium(VI)
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44. Metals with Variable Charge
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45. Determination of Variable Charge
Use the charge on the anion and charge balance to calculate charge on the metal ion.
MnF2
Mn charge + 2 F− charge = 0
? + 2 (1−) = 0
− = 0
Mn F− = 0
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46. Metals Form Positive Ions; Nonmetals Form Negative Ions
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47. Naming Compounds with Variable Charge Metals
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48. Naming FeCl2 Name the ionic compound FeCl2.
Step 1 Determine the charge of the cation. Because there are two Cl− anions, the charge on the Fe ion must be 2+.
Step 2 Name the cation by its element name and use a Roman numeral in parenthesis for the charge. The charge on Fe is represented by a Roman numeral, iron(II).
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49. Naming FeCl2 Name the ionic compound FeCl2.
Step 3 Name the anion by using the first syllable of its element name followed by ide. Chlorine becomes chloride.
Step 4 Write the name of the cation first and the name of the anion second. The ionic compound is named iron(II) chloride.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

50. Learning Check
Name the following ionic compounds containing metals that form two kinds of positive ions:
A. Fe2O3
B. SnCl2
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51. Solution
Name the following ionic compounds containing metals that form two kinds of positive ions:
Step 1 Determine the charge of the cation. A. Fe2O3 Because there are three O2– anions and two Fe ions, the charge on the Fe ion must be 2+.
B. SnCl2 Because there are two Cl− anions, the charge on the Sn ion must be 2+.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

52. Solution
Name the following ionic compounds containing metals that form two kinds of positive ions:
Step 2 Name the cation by its element name and use a
Roman numeral in parenthesis for the charge.
A. Fe2O3 The charge on Fe is represented by a
Roman numeral: iron(III)
B. SnCl2 The charge on Sn is represented by a
Roman numeral: tin(II)
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

53. Solution
Name the following ionic compounds containing metals that form two kinds of positive ions:
Step 3 Name the anion by using the first syllable of its
element name followed by ide.
A. Fe2O3 Oxygen becomes oxide.
B. SnCl2 Chlorine becomes chloride.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

54. Solution
Name the following ionic compounds containing metals that form two kinds of positive ions:
Step 4 Write the name of the cation first and the name of the anion second.
A. Fe2O3 is iron(III) oxide.
B. SnCl2 is tin(II) chloride.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

55. Writing Formulas from the Name of an Ionic Compound
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

56. Formula for Chromium(III) Bromide56
Step 1 Identify the cation and anion. The Roman numeral (III) indicates that the charge on the chromium ion is 3+, Cr3+.
Step 2 Balance the charges.
Cr3+ Br−
Br−
1(3+) + 3(1−) = 0
Step 3 Write formula, cation first, using subscripts from the charge balance CrBr3
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

57. Learning Check Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:
A. Nickel(II) sulfide
B. Zinc chloride
C. Iron(III) oxide
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

58. Solution Write chemical formulas for the following compounds.
Step 1 Identify the cation and anion.
A. Nickel(II) sulfide The Roman numeral (II) indicates that the charge on the nickel ion is 2+, Ni2+.
B. Zinc chloride Zinc is one of the transition metals with a fixed charge of 2+, Zn2+.
C. Iron(III) oxide The Roman numeral (III) indicates that the charge on the iron ion is 3+, Fe3+.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

59. Solution Write chemical formulas for the following compounds.
Step 2 Balance the charges.
A. Nickel(II) sulfide
Ni2+ S2−
1(2+) + 1(2−) = 0
B. Zinc chloride
Zn2+ Cl−
Cl−
1(2+) + 2(1−) = 0
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

60. Solution Write chemical formulas for the following compounds.
Step 2 Balance the charges.
C. Iron(III) oxide
Fe O2−
2(3+) + 3(2−) = 0
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

61. Solution Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:
Step 3 Write formula, cation first using subscripts from
the charge balance.
A. Nickel(II) sulfide NiS
B. Zinc chloride ZnCl2
C. Iron(III) oxide Fe2O3
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

62. Chapter 4 Compounds and Their Bonds
4.4
Polyatomic Ions
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

63. Polyatomic Ions Polyatomic Ions
are a group of atoms with an overall charge
often consist of a nonmetal such as phosphorus, sulfur,
carbon, or nitrogen and oxygen
usually have a 1−, 2−, or 3− charge
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

64. Names of Polyatomic Ions
1. Names of most common polyatomic ions end in ate.
SO42− sulfate
PO43− phosphate
NO3− nitrate
2. When a related ion has one less oxygen, its name ends in ite.
SO32− sulfite
PO33− phosphite
NO2− nitrite
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

65. Names of Polyatomic Ions
3. Exceptions to these rules are:
CN− cyanide
OH− hydroxide
NH4+ ammonium
4. Add an H+ and reduce negative charge.
CO32− + H+ = HCO3−
carbonate + H+ = bicarbonate or hydrogen carbonate
SO42− + H+ = HSO4−
sulfate + H+ = bisulfate or hydrogen sulfate
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

66. Names of Polyatomic Ions
5. Halogens form 4 polyatomic
ions with oxygen
each have a 1 charge.
ClO4− perchlorate
ClO3− chlorate
ClO2− chlorite
ClO− hypochlorite
Sodium chlorite is used in the processing and bleaching of pulp from wood fibers and recycled cardboard.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

67. Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
When writing formulas for ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions, we use the same rules of charge balance as those for simple ionic compounds.
Consider the formula for magnesium nitrate:
Mg NO3−
NO3−
(2+) (1−) = 0
Mg NO3− = Mg(NO3)2
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

68. Learning Check Select the correct formula for each.
A. aluminum nitrate
1) AlNO3 2) Al(NO)3 3) Al(NO3)3
B. copper(II) nitrate
1) CuNO3 2) Cu(NO3)2 3) Cu2(NO3)
C. iron(III) hydroxide
1) FeOH 2) Fe3OH 3) Fe(OH)3
D. tin(IV) hydroxide
1) Sn(OH)4 2) Sn(OH)2 3) Sn4(OH)
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

69. Solution Select the correct formula for each.
A. aluminum nitrate 3) Al(NO3)3
B. copper(II) nitrate ) Cu(NO3)2
C. iron(III) hydroxide ) Fe(OH)3
D. tin(IV) hydroxide ) Sn(OH)4
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

70. Guide to Naming Ionic Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

71. Naming Compounds with Polyatomic Ions
Name the following ionic compounds:
Step 1 Step 2 Step Step 4
cation/anion Name Name Name
cation anion compound
A. Ca(NO3)2 Ca2+ NO3− calcium nitrate calcium nitrate
B. FePO4 Fe3+ PO43− iron(III) phosphate iron(III) phosphate
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

72. Learning Check
Name each of the following compounds containing polyatomic ions.
A. MgSO3
B. MgSO4
C. Ca(ClO3)2
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

73. Solution Name the following ionic compounds:
Step 1 Step 2 Step Step 4
cation/anion Name Name Name
cation anion compound
A. MgSO3 Mg2+ SO32− magnesium sulfite magnesium
sulfite
B. MgSO4 Mg2+ SO42− magnesium sulfate magnesium
sulfate
C. Ca(ClO3)2 Ca2+ ClO3− calcium chlorate calcium
chlorate
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

74. Learning Check Name each of the following compounds: A. Fe2(SO4)3
B. Ba3(PO3)2
C. PbCO3
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.

75. Solution Name the following ionic compounds:
Step 1 Step 2 Step Step 4
cation/anion Name Name Name
cation anion compound
A. Fe2(SO4)3 Fe3+ SO42− iron(III) sulfate iron(III)
sulfate
B. Ba3(PO3)2 Ba2+ PO33− barium phosphite barium
phosphite
C. PbCO3 Pb2+ CO32− lead(II) carbonate lead(II)
carbonate
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Eleventh Edition Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.