1. Semantics
LI Nathalie F. Martin

2. Bibliography / References
Primary Reference and reading:
Contemporary Linguistic Analysis (O’Grady & Archibald, 2009, p )
Reading:
Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb, Norman C., in Linguistics at Work: A Reader of Application, by Dallin D. Oaks, 1998)
Secondary Reference (for information only):
A Concise Introduction to Linguistics (Rowe & Levine, 2009; )

3. Table of Content Introduction: Ambiguity (review of text)
Concept, Referent and Form
Semantics
Meaning
Semantic Relations Among Words
The –NYMS
Meaning of Phrases and Sentences
Meaning of Words Through Time

4. Ambiguity Review of the text:
Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb, Norman C., in Linguistics at Work: A Reader of Application, by Dallin D. Oaks, 1998)

5. Multiple Meanings ______________
E.g. For many purposes they used obsidian or volcanic rock.
E.g. a fat lady’s man
E.g. Many hands make light work. (in given example)
E.g. I am an outdoor lover.
“Out-of-doors lover” … or … ?
Ambiguity in College Writing (Stageberb)

6. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

7. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

8. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

9. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

10. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

11. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

12. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

13. A small business man. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity?
Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?
A small business man.

14. What Ambiguity? Lexical ambiguity? Syntactic ambiguity?
Class ambiguity?
Script ambiguity?

15. Concept, Referent and Form
Preliminary theory to semantics
The Abstract Side of Language

16. Referent: the actual thing

17. Referent, Concept and Symbol
(word)
[bərd]
[bərd]
CONCEPT
(abstract, in our heads)
Qu’est-ce que le langage? (Leclerc)

18. Referent, Concept and Symbol
(word)
[bərd]
CONCEPT
(abstract, in our heads)
REFERENT
(the actual thing)
Ferdinand de Saussure
Qu’est-ce que le langage? (Leclerc)

19. Referent, Concept and Symbol
The __________ refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.), the __________ refers to the object in the world of experience, and THOUGHT or REFERENCE refers to __________ .
The symbol or a word signifies “things” by virtue of the “concept” associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker of the language, and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.
e.g. The dog over there looks friendly.
The word “dog” is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind, i.e. what a “dog” is like, but it is not directly linked to the referent (the particular dog) in this particular case.

20. Referent, Concept and Symbol
There is not a direct link between the sound of the word dog (Symbol) and the object it refers to.
What is called the signified is not actually what we have been shown but an abstract concept formed in our mind.
Refers to
evokes
Symbol
Stands for
Referent
 no direct relationship
Semantic Triangle
Ogden & Richards

21. Romeo and Juliette (Shakespeare)
'Tis but thy name that is my enemy; Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. What's Montague? it is nor hand, nor foot, Nor arm, nor face, nor any other part Belonging to a man. O, be some other name!
What's in a name? that which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet;
So Romeo would, were he not Romeo call'd, Retain that dear perfection which he owes Without that title. Romeo, doff thy name, And for that name which is no part of thee Take all myself

22. Review: The Psychic Side of Things
Symbol
Concept
Sounds bərd]
__________ __________ of the sound
« acoustique image »
(sound pattern)
A string of phonemes (sounds)
Psychic imprint
We reffer to this mental imprint to understand when someone speaks
Common to speakers of that language (therefore conventional)
(__________ __________ of reality)
-Psychic
-Mental image of the referent
- Ex: covered in feathers, has a bec, etc.
Ferdinand de Saussure

23. Concepts Across Languages
« Win » (Eng)
« Gagner » (Fr)
« Devancer » (fr)
(to be ahead)
Beat / « Beater »
(Acadian French)

24. Semantics

25. Definition: Semantics
Semantics is the study of the __________ of linguistic expressions, such as morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

26. What is the Meaning of This?
Cold
Old
Fine
Cool
Fly
Behind
Accent
Nobody
This
Getting in touch

27. CONTEXT is Key !
– Certain aspects of meaning change with the __________ __________
Nobody bought milk (store owner vs. room mates)
X is old: “old” means different things depending on what X is (person, food, currency, place, friend…)
Context is therefore very important!!

28. Semantics Two types of semantics:
__________ __________ : meaning of words
__________ __________ : meaning of utterances larger than words

29. FIVE APPROACHES TO MEANING:
Connotation
Denotation
Extension and intention
Componential Analysis
Subcategorization of verbs
Actantial Approach

30. What is “word meaning”?
What does it mean when you say you know the meaning of a word?
What does it mean when you say you know a word, such as “bird” “blue”, or “happy” ?
How do we __________ of a word meaning?

31. 1. Connotation « Set of associations that a word’s use can evoke »
e.g. winter

32. 2. Denotation According to __________ __________ …
To equate meaning to a word or phrase with actual entities to which it refers
e.g.
* But what about __________ things that have no referents !!!

33. ____ referents for one thing
Denotation
____ referents for one thing
the same thing
e.g. Paul Martin:

34. 3. Extension versus intention
A word’s extension corresponds to the __________ that it __________ in the world (__________ )
A word’s intension corresponds to its __________ __________ or the __________ that __________ .
* The distinction stipulates the relation between referents and meanings

35. 4. Componential Analysis
Used to
represents
the word’s
INTENTION
Also called:
Componential Analysis Or
Semantic Decomposition

36. Componential Analysis
Contemporary Linguistics Analysis: p. 196
INTENTION
Componential Analysis
Semantic properties: The __________ of meaning of a word.
Semantic feature: A notational device for expressing the __________ or __________ of semantic properties by “+” and “-”.
Example of componential analysis:
“baby” is [+ young], [+ human], [– abstract].

37. Componential Analysis
INTENTION
1. (a) widow, mother, sister, aunt, maid
(b) widower, father, brother, uncle, valet
The (a) and (b) words are
The (a) words are
The (b) words are
[ human]
[ female]
[ male]
2. (a) bachelor, paperboy, pope, chief
(b) bull, rooster, drake, ram
The (a) and (b) words are
The (a) words are
The (b) words are
[ male]
[ human]
[ animal]

38. Componential Analysis
INTENTION
3. (a) table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship
(b) milk, alcohol, rice, soup, mud
The (a) words are
The (b) words are
[ count]
[ count]
4. (a) pine, elm, sycamore
(b) dandelion, aster, daisy
The (a) and (b) words are
The (a) words are
The (b) words are
[ plant]
[ tree]
[ flower]

39. Componential Analysis
INTENTION
SWINE
Definition:
an adult female swine; also : the adult female of various other animals (as a bear)
Semantic Analysis:
[ animal], [ swine], [ male] or [ female]

40. Componential Analysis
INTENTION
CAR
Definition:
A vehicle moving on wheels
Semantic Analysis:
[ vehicle], [ motorized], [ 4 wheels] …

41. Componential Analysis
INTENTION
BUTTERFLY
Definition:
any of numerous slender-bodied diurnal lepidopteran insects including one superfamily (Papilionoidea) with broad often brightly colored wings and usually another superfamily comprising the skippers
Semantic Analysis:
[ ], [ ], [ ] …

42. 5. Subcategorization of verbs
2 complements: No complement:
Fax Murmur
Radio Mumble
Wire Mutter
Phone Shriek
Emphasis on: Emphasis on:
- __________ ____ - __________ ______
So there’s a link between _________and __________!!!

43. 6. Actantial Approach
In defining verbs we should also describe their __________ and the __________ :
A1 tosses A2 to A3:
A1 = [+ human]
A2 = [+ concrete], [+ movable], [+ small]
A3 = [± human] or [+ living/moving], [+ with hands] …
* Again, this is a combination of _______ and _________!

44. Semantic Relations Among Words
The –Nyms:
Hyponym, hypernym and cohyponym
Synonym and parasynonyms
Antonyms
Polysemy
Homonym
Homonyms
Homophone
Homographs

45. 1. Hyponyms (Semantic Relations among Words)
Hyponyms and hypernyms
Hyponymy: Words whose meanings are __________ instances of a more general word, e.g. isosceles and equilateral are hyponyms of the word triangle.
Hyponyms and cohyponyms
Let’s organize these words:
Dance (verb)
Salsa
Exercice
Tango

46. 2. Synonyms (Semantic Relations among Words)
Synonymy: words that have the _______ meanings, e.g. start & begin.

47. Synonyms or Parasynonyms?
Vacation = holidays
Youth = adolescent
Remember = recall
Purchase = buy
Big = large

48. Synonyms & Parasynonyms
Pride and Prejudice, a screenplay by Deborah Moggach
The danger of parasynonyms and over-extension
Chapter 3 : 20 minutes into the movie
Odious
Long
Dote one her
In raptures
Accomplished 

49. 3. Antonyms
a. Gradable vs Ungradable
b. Converse
c. Reversives

50. Antonyms vs Synonyms
Antonymy: words that are __________ in meanings, e.g. hot & cold.
Synonymy or Antonymy
Flourish – thrive
Intelligent – stupid
Casual – informal
Flog – whip
Drunk – sober
synonym
antonym

51. a. Gradable/ungradable antonyms
Grading involves __________ . When we compare two or more objects.
Do the objects have the property to the same ______or not:
… cold cool warm hot …
Gradable: “colder”
The weather is much colder this week than last week.
Ungradable: “male”
٭John is as much male as Peter.
٭John is more male than Peter.

52. a. Gradable/ungradable antonyms (continued)
Exception:
Normal language behavior: ungradable antonyms can sometimes be graded in speech. The reasons for it are pragmatic.
Example
John is more of a bachelor than Daniel (i.e. more determined never to get married, partying, had never had a stable girlfriend, etc.)
I am more alive now than ever (i.e. feeling more energetic, satisfied with my life, etc).

53. b. Conversives There is a __________ ___ between both
Without one you don’t have the other:
Examples:
Husband – wife
Doctor – patient
Master – mistress
Before - after
Above – below, etc.
Often used to speak of __________ social roles, __________ and __________ relations.

54. c. Reversives
Another term: __________ __________ . Examples of directional opposites include:
Examples:
Up - down
Come - go
Arrive – depart
Common feature: implication of _________in one of the two opposite directions __________ __________ .

55. Antonyms (review)
Gradable vs Ungradable?
Converse?
Reversives?

56. 4. Polysemy Semantic Relations among Words
Polysemy: A word which has ___or more __________ meanings
e.g. bright: ‘bright light’ ; ‘bright colors’

57. 5. Homonymy Semantic Relations among Words
Homonymy: A word which has ________or more __________ __________ meanings
e.g. club: ‘a social organization’ ; ‘a blunt weapon’.

58. Identifying Homonyms in Jokes
1. Time flies _____an arrow
Fruit flies _____ a banana
2. Policeman: Why have you parked your car here?
Motorist: Because the sign says “ for Parking”.
3. Customer: Have you got half-inch ?
Ironmonger: Yes, sir.
Customer: Then could you scratch my back. It’s very itchy

59. Homonymy or Polysemy ?

60. Homonymy or Polysemy ?

61. Polysemy & Homonymy ?

62. Homonyms, Homophony & Homography
Homophony: Different words ______________ but ____________________ , e.g. two and too.
Homography: Different words __________ but __________________ e.g. minute and minute.
Homonyms are words that are homophones and homographs.

63. Identifying homophones
1. [steər] 
1. Stair, stare
2. [weist] 
2. waste, waist
3. [si:lIη] 
3. sealing, ceiling
4. [kju:] 
4. cue, queue
5. [sent] 
5. sent, cent, scent

64. Identifying Homographs
Read
Wind
Live
Tear
Invalid
Bow
Dove

65. Semantic Relations: Phrases and Sentences
Structural Semantics:
Contradictions
Oxymorons
Anomalous utterances
Metaphors
Idioms
Etc.

66. Paraphrase Paraphrase: __________ that can have the _____ meaning.
a. The police chased the burglar &
The burglar was chased by the police.
b. Paul bought a car from Sue &
Sue sold a car to Paul

67. Entailment
Entailment: a relation in which the of one sentence necessarily the of another.
Examples of asymmetrical entailment.
a. The park wardens killed the tiger.
& The tiger is dead.
b. Robin is a man
& Robin is human

68. Contradiction
Contradiction: When two sentences __________ __________ .
a. Charles is a bachelor.
b. Charles is married.

69. Metaphor and Metonymy All the world's a stage,
And all the men and women merely players
They have their exits and their entrances
The White House said ...
The pen is mightier than the sword

70. Metaphor: The understanding of one concept __________ of another
Happy or Sad?
1. I’m feeling up
Happy
2. Her spirits sank
Sad
3. That boosted my spirits
Happy
4. The height of ecstacy
Happy
5. The depths of misery
Sad
6. He fell into a depression
Sad
Emotions: Happy is Up; Sad is down

71. Synecdoche, Allegory, Hyperbole
Part for whole:
head for cattle
Whole for part:
the police, the Pentagon
Species for genus:
kleenex
Genus for species: PC

72. Idioms
Two central features of idioms:
The meaning of the idiomatic expression cannot be deduced by the examining the ________________ .
The expression is both grammatically and lexically.
For example:
Put a sock in it = ‘stop talking’

73. Can you identify the meanings of the following idioms?
Ring a bell.
It sounds familiar to you / You have heard it before
By word of mouth.
In a spoken form.
On the house.
Free for the customers.
Hot spot
A place of political danger.
A lively nightclub.
An area on the screen which can be clicked on to start an operation such as loading a file.
An area where you can get connected to the Internet through a wireless network.

74. Cross-Cultural Misunderstanding of Idioms
Can’t translate from language to another:
« Foot in your mouth » vs. « Doigt dans l’œil »
Sometimes leads to misunderstanding:

75. Compound Words
Compound words are treated as having one __________ and is not necessarily the adding together of the two individual meanings of the two words.
Ex:
« High chair »
« tooth brush »

76. Meaning of Words Through Time

77. Neologism (or Coinage)

78. Neologism (or Coinage)
Using derivation:

79. Evolution of Meaning
Language Changes a lot, not just in adding new words here and there, but also as the meaning of these words change with time.
« Cool » used to mean « not warm/cold ». Then the meaning changed.
Now, « cool », is not really that « cool » anymore !

80. Evolution of Extension
BARRER (Acadian French):
Blocked river
Block road
Block door (locked)
This is how you get __________ 

81. Evolution of Extension 