3. 3-[[2-[2-[2-[[(2S,3R)-2-[[(2S,3S,4R)-4-[[(2S,3R)-2-[[6-Amino-2-[(1S)-3-amino-1-[[(2S)-2,3-diamino-3 oxopropyl]amino]-3-oxopropyl]-5-methylpyrimidine-4-carbonyl]amino]-3-[(2R,3S,4S,5S,6S)-3-[(2R,3S,4S,5R,6R)-4-carbamoyloxy-3,5-dihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl]oxy-4,5-dihydroxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxan-2-yl]oxy-3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)propanoyl]amino]-3-hydroxy-2-methylpentanoyl]amino]-3-hydroxybutanoyl]amino]ethyl]-1,3-thiazol-4-yl]-1,3-thiazole-4-carbonyl]amino]propyl-dimethylsulfanium
Bleomycin A2: anibiotic, antineoplastic; cell cycle arrest in G2 and in mitosis.

4. The free glucose in the blood provides only a 40 kcal energy reserve -- only enough to maintain body functions for a few minutes.
Glycogen remaining stored in the liver and muscles after an overnight fast, amounts to about 600 kcal energy. Glycogen reserves can maintain body functions for about one day without new inputs of food.
Protein (mostly in muscle) contains a substantial energy reserve of about 25,000 kcal.
Lipid reserves containing 100,000 kcal of energy can maintain human body functions without food for days with sufficient water. Lipids or fats represent about 24 pounds of the body weight in a 154 pound male. Lipids provide the sole source of energy in hibernating animals and migrating birds.
Lipids are more compact and contain more energy per gram than glycogen, otherwise body weight would increase approximately 110 pounds if glycogen were to replace fat as the energy reserve.

5. Outline How are carbohydrates named?
What is the structure and chemistry of monosaccharides?
What is the structure and chemistry of oligosaccharides?
What is the structure and chemistry of polysaccharides?
What are glycoproteins, and how do they function in cells?
How do proteoglycans modulate processes in cells and organisms?
Do carbohydrates provide a structural code?

6. 7.1 How Are Carbohydrates Named?
Carbohydrates are hydrates of carbon
With the general formula (CH2O)n
Carbohydrates are classified in three groups:
Monosaccharides (simple sugars) - cannot be broken down into simpler sugars under mild conditions
Oligosaccharides (oligo = "a few“) - usually 2 to 10 simple sugar residues
Polysaccharides - are polymers of the simple sugars

7. 7.2 What Is the Structure and Chemistry of Monsaccharides?
Figure 7.1 Structure of a simple aldose and a simple ketose.

8. 7.2 What Is the Structure and Chemistry of Monsaccharides?
Figure Detail

9. 7.2 What Is the Structure and Chemistry of Monsaccharides?
Figure Detail

10. Stereochemistry Review
Read text on p carefully:
D,L designation refers to the configuration of the highest-numbered asymmetric center
D,L only refers the stereocenter of interest back to D- and L-glyceraldehyde
D,L do not specify the sign of rotation of plane-polarized light
All structures in Figures 7.2 and 7.3 are D-sugars
D-sugars predominate in nature

11. Stereochemistry Review
Stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other are enantiomers
Pairs of isomers that have opposite configurations at one or more chiral centers but are NOT mirror images are diastereomers
Any 2 sugars in a row in Figure 7.2 and 7.3 are diastereomers
Two sugars that differ in configuration at only one chiral center are epimers

12. Cyclic monsaccharide structures and anomeric forms
Glucose (an aldose) can cyclize to form a cyclic hemiacetal
Fructose (a ketose) can cyclize to form a cyclic hemiketal
When hemiacetals and hemiketals are formed, the carbon atom that carried the carbonyl function becomes an asymmetric carbon
Isomers of monosaccharides that differ only in their configuration about that asymmetric carbon are called anomers
Cyclic form of glucose is a pyranose
Cyclic form of fructose is a furanose

13. Monosaccharides Exist in Cyclic, Anomeric Forms
Figure 7.5 The linear form of D-glucose undergoes an intramolecular reaction to form a cyclic hemiacetal – with an anomeric carbon. Note α and β designations.

14. 7.2 What Is the Structure and Chemistry of Monsaccharides?
Figure 7.5 The linear form of D-fructose undergoes an intramolecular reaction to form a cyclic hemiketal – with an anomeric carbon. Note α and β designations.

15. Cyclic monsaccharide structures and anomeric forms
Isomers of monosaccharides that differ only in their configuration about the asymmetric carbon are called anomers
When the hydroxyl group at the anomeric carbon is on the same side of a Fischer projection as the oxygen atom at the highest numbered asymmetric carbon, the configuration at the anomeric carbon is α, as in α-D-glucose
A simpler rule:
For D-sugars, alpha has OH down, beta up*
For L-sugars, the reverse is true
*In the customary Haworth drawing

16. 7.2 What Is the Structure and Chemistry of Monsaccharides?
Figure 7.8 (a) Chair and boat conformations of a pyranose sugar.
(b) Two possible chair conformations of β-D-glucose. Note the axial and equatorial substituents.

17. Monosaccharides Can Be Converted to Several Derivative Forms
A variety of chemical and enzymatic reactions produce derivatives of the simple sugars
Some of the most common are:
Sugar acids
Sugar alcohols
Deoxy sugars
Sugar esters
Amino sugars
Acetals, ketals, and glycosides

18. Monosaccharides Can Be Converted to Several Derivative Forms
A variety of chemical and enzymatic reactions produce derivatives of the simple sugars
Some of the most common are:
Sugar acids
Sugar alcohols
Deoxy sugars
Sugar esters
Amino sugars
Acetals, ketals, and glycosides

19. Monosaccharide Derivatives
Reducing sugars are sugars with free anomeric carbons - they will reduce oxidizing agents, such as peroxide, ferricyanide and some metals (Cu2+ and Ag+)
These redox reactions convert the sugar to a sugar acid
Glucose is a reducing sugar - so these reactions are the basis for diagnostic tests for blood sugar

20. More Monosaccharide Derivatives
Sugar alcohols are formed by mild reduction of sugars
Deoxy sugars: constituents of DNA, etc.
Sugar esters: phosphate esters like ATP are important
Amino sugars contain an amino group in place of a hydroxyl group
Acetals, ketals and glycosides: basis for oligo- and polysaccharides

21. Sugar Alcohols
Figure 7.10 Structures of some sugar alcohols.

22. Amino Sugars Sugars with an amino group at C-2 are amino sugars.
They are found in many oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
Figure 7.14

23. Acetals and Ketals
Figure 7.16 Acetals and ketals can be formed from hemiacetals and hemiketals, respectively. These reactions are examples of dehydration syntheses. In this sense, they are similar to the reactions of amino acids to form peptides.

24. Glycosides
The pyranose and furanose forms of monosaccharides react with alcohols in dehydration synthesis reactions to form glycosides, with retention of the α- or β-configuration at the C-1 carbon. The new bond formed is called a glycosidic bond.
Figure 7.17 The anomeric forms of methyl-D-glucoside.

25. 7.3 What is the Structure and Chemistry of Oligosaccharides?
Figure 7.18 The structures of several important disaccharides. Note the configurations at the anomeric carbons. Note also that sucrose is not a reducing sugar.

26. 7.3 What is the Structure and Chemistry of Oligosaccharides?
It’s not important to memorize structures, but you should know the important features
Be able to identify anomeric carbons and reducing and nonreducing ends
Note that sucrose is NOT a reducing sugar
Browse the structures in Figure 7.18 and Figure 7.19
Note carefully the nomenclature of links. Be able to recognize alpha(1,4), beta(1,4) linkages, etc., in structures.

27. A Variety of Higher Oligosaccharides Occur in Nature
Oligosaccharides occur widely as components of antibiotics (derived from various sources).
Figure 7.19 Erythromycin is an antibiotic produced by a strain of Streptomyces erythreus.

28. A Variety of Higher Oligosaccharides Occur in Nature
Oligosaccharides occur widely as components of antibiotics (derived from various sources).
Figure 7.19 Streptomycin is an oligosaccharide produced by Stretomyces griseus.

29. Starch A plant storage polysaccharide
Two forms: amylose and amylopectin
Most starch is 10-30% amylose and 70-90% amylopectin
Branches in amylopectin every residues
Amylose has alpha(1,4) links, one reducing end
The branches in amylopectin are α(1→6).

30. Amylose and Amylopectin are energy storage molecules in plants
Figure 7.20 Amylose and amylopectin are two forms of starch. Amylopectin is highly branched, with branches occurring every 12 to 30 residues.

31. The glucose storage device in animals
Glycogen
The glucose storage device in animals
Glycogen constitutes up to 10% of liver mass and 1-2% of muscle mass
Glycogen is stored energy for the organism
Only difference from amylopectin: the frequency of branching
Alpha(1,6) branches every 8-12 residues
Like amylopectin, glycogen gives a red-violet color with iodine

32. Dextrans A small but significant difference from starch and glycogen
If you change the main linkages between glucose from alpha(1,4) to alpha(1,6), you get a new family of polysaccharides - dextrans
Branches can be (1,2), (1,3), or (1,4)

33. Roles for Dextrans
Dextrans formed by bacteria are components of dental plaque
Dextrans in plaque presumably provide protection for oral bacteria
Cross-linked dextrans are used as "Sephadex" gels in column chromatography
These gels, used to separate biomolecules on the basis of size, are up to 98% water!

34. Structural Polysaccharides
The composition of structural polysaccharides is similar to storage polysaccharides
But small structural differences greatly influence properties
Starch and glycogen linkages consist primarily of α(1→4) linkages.
Cellulose consists of β(1→4) linkages

35. Cellulose Provides Physical Structure and Strength to Plants
Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide
It is the most abundant natural polymer in the world
It is found in the cell walls of nearly all plants
The wood and bark of trees are insoluble, highly organized structures formed from cellulose and lignin
Cotton is almost pure cellulose
Cotton acetates, made from the action of acetic anhydride on cellulose, are used in dresses, lingerie, and other clothing

36. The Structural Difference Between Amylose and Cellulose
Figure 7.23 (a) Amylose prefers a helical conformation (due to its bent α(1→4) linkages. (b) Cellulose, with β(1→4) linkages, can adopt a fully extended conformation.

37. The Structure of Cellulose
Figure 7.24 The structure of cellulose, showing the hydrogen bonds (blue) between the sheets, which strengthen the structure.
Intrachain H-bonds in red; interchain H-bonds in green.

38. How Do Ruminant Animals Digest Cellulose?
Figure Giraffes, cattle, deer, and camels are ruminant animals that are able to metabolize cellulose, thanks to bacterial cellulase in the rumen, a large first compartment in the stomach of a ruminant.

39. Structures of cellulose, chitin and mannan
Figure 7.26 Like cellulose, chitin and mannan form extended ribbons and pack together efficiently, taking advantage of multiple hydrogen bonds.

40. The Structure of Agarose in Solution
Agarose, a component of agar obtained from marine red algae, is a chain of alternating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactose.
Agarose gels are used in laboratories to separate biomolecules on the basis of size
Figure The favored conformation of agarose in water is a double helix with a threefold screw axis.

41. Composed of 1 or 2 bilayers and peptidoglycan shell
Bacterial Cell Walls
Composed of 1 or 2 bilayers and peptidoglycan shell
Gram-positive: One bilayer and thick peptidoglycan outer shell
Gram-negative: Two bilayers with thin peptidoglycan shell in between
Gram-positive: pentaglycine bridge connects tetrapeptides
Gram-negative: direct amide bond between tetrapeptides

42. The Structure of Peptidoglycan
Note the isoglutamate linkage in the tetrapeptide chain
Figure The tetrapeptides linking adjacent backbone chains contain an unusual γ-carboxyl linkage.

43. The Structure of Gram-positive Peptidoglycan
Figure 7.29 The crosslink between tetrapeptides in Gram-positive cell walls is a pentaglycine bridge.

44. The Structure of Gram-negative Peptidoglycan
Note the direct crosslinks between tetrapeptide units
Figure 7.29 In Gram-negative cell walls, the linkage between tetrapeptide segments involves a direct amide bond.