1. Cognitive Task Analysis
Dick Clark
Center for Cognitive Technology
Rossier School of Education
Keck School of Medicine
University of Southern California -
PSLC October 15, 2013

2. Topics Why the interest in Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA)?
What evidence supports CTA’s use in education?
How is it implemented? Examples? Exceptions?
Next steps in research. 2

3. Why Cognitive Task Analysis?
Methods for identifying the cognitive strategies used by experts and novices to perform complex tasks.
Supports decisions on WHAT to teach - not how.
Important because of evidence that +/- 70% of expert decisions and many actions are implicit – automated and nonconscious -- in order to circumvent limits on WM.
When CTA used to design instruction, 1σ increase in learning and
.5σ decrease in time to learn.
Preliminary evidence of increases in task self-efficacy and persistence (decreased dropout) in higher education courses. 3

4. Brief History of CTA
Recent developments in long history of Task Analysis
Gilbreth’s 1890 – QUERTY keyboard, 3X bricklaying
Crandall & Gretchell-Leiter (1993) identified 30% more indicators of distress in premature babies with Klein’s CTA (Crandall, Klein & Hoffman, 2006).
Chao & Salvendy (1994) examined four different methods of capturing the strategies experts use for three debugging tasks.
Average of 40% procedural steps and 30% explanations
Increased to average of 80% of steps after interviewing 6 experts
Cost-benefit diminishes beyond 4 to 6 experts
Why do experts recall different IF – THEN steps? 4

5. Chao & Salvende, (1994) 5

6. Decision step recall increase with more experts
Chao & Salvende, (1997) Figure 4 6

7. PhD Students (intermediates) vs. Psychology Faculty
Feldon (2010) 7

8. 70% Decisions Missing and 4 to 6 Experts to Remedy
Other studies, including partial replications of Chao & Salvende
Trauma Surgeons (Campbell, 2010; Crispen 2010; Sullivan et al, 2011; Velmahos et al, 2006)
Psych faculty teaching experimental design (Feldon, 2010)
Expert instructors consistently describe 30% of decisions but but about 60% of actions when teaching.
With CTA the decisions identified reached 90 to 100% with four to six experts.
Most of our studies focused on surgical procedures because of disputes about “expertise” and surgeon’s legally required to report mistakes. 8

9. Variation in SME Action and Decision Steps
(Crispen, 2010 – Cricothyrotomy procedure) 9

10. Percent of decisions identified with each new SME
Crispen, 2010; Figure 6 10

11. Expert Knowledge Provided During Teaching
Sullivan, Yates, Clark, Green, Tang, Cestero, Plurad, Lam & Inaba (In Press) 11

12. Unexpected Result: Controversial CVC Procedure
Figure 4: Yates, Sullivan & Clark (2011) 12

13. Exception: Two CTA studies of catheter procedure
Clark, 2014) 13

14. CTA in Instructional Design14

15. CTA in Instructional Design
Gucev (2012) randomized double blind experiment on CTA in Ultrasound Guided Regional Anesthesia 15

16. Gucev CTA Study Design and Results
Both experimental and control groups:
Same tasks and conceptual knowledge required by the American and European Societies of Regional Anesthesia.
Same instructional methods (conceptual knowledge first then demonstration and practice).
Participants were second and third year medical students.
Experimental group received CTA content for Societies tasks and the control group received the approved Societies content and tasks.
Results – benefits of CTA on learning and performance over controls:
Declarative knowledge effect size d = 1.43 (42%)
Procedural knowledge effect size d = (45%)
Effect size for the time for task performance was d = (-37%) 16

17. Benefit of Cognitive Task Analysis?
Instruction based on CTA is consistently more effective than Behavioral Task Analysis or “self report”.
Hoffman (1998) 38% better with CTA – changed textbooks on prenatal infections.
Velmahos et al (2002) 35% better surgical decisions, improved transfer, 25% quicker, no important errors.
Tofel-Grehl & Feldon (2013) meta analysis (57 comparisons).
Hedges g = .88 (31%) overall but g =1.56 (44%) for PARI-type CTA methods and g = .39 (16%) for Klein’s CDM method.
Biology lab course significantly better performance and lower dropout (Feldon et al, 2010; Feldon & Stowe, 2009). 17

18. CTA vs. Traditional Instruction - Biology Lab Reports
Universal Lab Report Rubric Criteria
Treatment Mean
(SD)
Control Mean F
p-value
Discussion: Conclusions based on data
Conclusion is clearly and logically drawn from data provided. A logical chain of reasoning from hypothesis to data to conclusions is clearly and persuasively explained.
0.90 (.50)
0.77 (0.48)
4.378
.037*
Discussion: Alternative explanations
Alternative explanations are considered and clearly eliminated by data in a persuasive discussion.
0.43
(0.52)
0.28 (0.44)
6.171
.014*
Discussion: Limitations of design
Limitations of the data and/or experimental design and corresponding implications discussed.
0.70
(0.63)
0.54 (0.57)
4.703
.031*
Discussion: Implications of research
Paper gives a clear indication of the implications and direction of the research in the future.
0.31
(0.46)
0.21 (0.40)
3.463
.064
Discussion: Total Score
2.34 (1.49)
1.78
(1.37)
9.501
.002**
Feldon et al. (2010); Feldon & Stowe (2009) 18

19. Biology 101 Attrition (Withdraw Rates)
CTA Condition
Control Condition
Fisher’s Exact
(2-sided)
2-week Enrollment
142
172 -
Final Enrollment
140
158
Overall Dropouts 2 14
p=.005**
Biology Majors 1 3
p=.334
Non-Majors 11
p=.010**
Women 8
p=.041*
Men 6
p=.072
Feldon et al. (2010); Feldon & Stowe (2009) 19

20. CTA with Online Faculty at Kaplan University
CTA with four of the most effective online faculty teaching intro courses.
Plan:
Identify the strategies reported by most of the experts interviewed.
Translate them into a Likert-type values survey that would be offered to a large random sample of 280 online instructors in different fields.
“How likely are you to advise a new instructor to use ……?”
Correlate the rankings of the items by individual faculty with their student’s learning and retention data.
Use the items that predicted the greatest success to help hire new faculty, train existing faculty and evaluate the results.

21. Results of Kaplan U Survey Based on CTA
DROPOUT: With every .5 increase in survey ranking of items, student dropout decreased 1.6% (a low score of 1 predicts a dropout rate of 41% whereas a score of 5 predicts a significantly lower rate of 29.4%)
GPA: With every .5 increase in survey ranking of items, GPA increased about .15 points. A score of 3.0 on the survey would predict a GPA of 2.1 whereas a score of 5.0 on the survey would predict a GPA of 2.5.
RETENTION: Faculty who valued making themselves available by phone, calling students who were not actively participating and who tried to help students recover from problems had an 81% chance of higher retention rates in academic programs

22. Example: Kaplan Career Services Advisors
Content based on a CTA of career service advisors with highest placements
“Kaplan Way” design and delivery
Randomized controlled study (treatment n: 63; control n: 67)
15% improvement in performance (key metric: job placements)

23. Cost of CTA?
Taken from Clark, 2014 23

24. What is Cognitive Task Analysis?
100 + strategies for capturing the implicit and explicit strategies experts use to perform complex tasks based on Newell & Simon’s “Human Problem Solving” (1972).
Goal is to enhance human or machine learning and performance.
Four types of CTA processes (Marsha Lovett’s 2x2): 24

25. What is Cognitive Task Analysis?
Yates (2007) sorts prescriptive CTA methods by outcome: Those that capture declarative (what) and/or procedural (how) and/or Strategic (when) expert knowledge.
Our emphasis is on a blending of the three varieties of CTA methods that capture all three types of knowledge identified by Tofel-Grehl & Feldon (2013) meta analysis as the most productive:
CDM (Critical Decision Method; Klein et al, 1989).
PARI (Precursor, Action, Result, Interpretation; Hall et al, 1995).
CPP (Concept, Process, Principle, Procedure; Clark, 2014). 25

26. What is Cognitive Task Analysis?
Three to six experts selected because they are consistently and recently successful (not simply “experienced”) and NOT instructors.
Evidence that each expert has different implicit knowledge about same tasks and that instructors invent “superstitious” steps.
Results of interviews corrected by experts and edited into one “gold standard” approach for novices based on maximum efficiency and accuracy.
Range of problem examples and performance scenarios are also collected from experts for use in instruction.
Goal is to develop a succinct and accurate procedure (when and how) to perform as basis for demonstrations and practice exercises.
Emphasis on IF – THEN decisions. 26

27. What is Cognitive Task Analysis? Six Tasks
Interview experts with recent, consistently successful experience who are NOT full time instructors.
Task 1. Outline sequence of tasks “as performed on the job”
If no necessary sequence, teach easier tasks before more difficult tasks.
Place prerequisite knowledge first.
If safety is an issue – “Safety first”.
“In about 30 seconds, describe the actions and decisions you implement to achieve the goal of this task. 27

28. Surgery Task Sequence 28 Task 1 Task 2 Task 3 Task 4 Task 5
Introduce intravenous dilator and catheter
Select catheter & choose insertion site
Task 1
Immobilize patient, prepare site
and insert catheter needle
Task 2
Introduce guide wire and
incise skin around wire insertion
Task 3
Prepare lumens and secure line with
non-absorbable sutures
Task 5 28

29. Example Course Outline: Examining patent applications
Preparing search
Performing substantive
reports
examinations
Analyzing
Performing
Writing pre-
Issuing communications
Re-examining
applications
searches
examination results
or votes (including pre-
applications
examination results)
Determining
Determining
Determining
Identifying
Classifying
mean features
claimed subject
novelty &
relevant EPC
applications
of invention
matter
inventive steps
requirements
or refusal
Examining amendments
Determining
Using
Evaluating
Discussing with applicant
search
search
search
Writing further communication(s)
strategies
tools
results
Finding lack of unity
Determining claimed invention
Determining described invention
invention
documents
Comparing
documents with
Selecting relevant 29

30. What is Cognitive Task Analysis? Six Tasks
Interview 2-3 experts with recent, successful experience
Task 2) For each task, describe clearly enough so that trainees can read and apply
Context (Where, When)
Condition or Cue (What Starts the task)
Sequence of Actions and Decisions (How)
Finish this step before going on to step 3 –
Tasks or task sequence may change when you see performance steps
Can estimate time required to train at this point 30

31. Task 2: Actions and Decisions
Explain each action in the sequence you perform them
Things people do (start with action verbs)
Explain each decision
Describe as “IF” and “THEN” sentences
MOST IMPORTANT: Write steps clearly enough so that a trainee could read and then do what you are describing. 31

32. Catheter Placement Steps -Decision Procedure
Start by deciding among three sites for catheter placement.
IF the neck is accessible and can be moved, and the head and neck are free of excessive equipment, THEN select jugular placement.
IF neck is inaccessible or cannot be moved, THEN select subclavian.
IF the subclavian veins are thrombosed and there is no injury to the IVC, THEN select femoral vein placement. 32

33. Catheter Placement Steps
Dilator and catheter insertion for Triple Lumen catheters: 
Step 13A: Thread the guide wire into the tip of the dilator. 
Direct the dilator down the wire slowly and through subcutaneous tissue (3 – 4 cm). 33

34. Patent Examination Procedure Example34

35. What is Cognitive Task Analysis? Six Tasks
Task 3) Collect task-related information about:
Supplies and equipment (and location)
Performance standards (speed, quality)
Common novice performance errors
Reasons (Personal Benefits and Personal Risks) 35

36. What is Cognitive Task Analysis? Six Tasks
Task 4) Identify conceptual knowledge related to procedure:
Facts (required statements about anything)
Concepts (define new terms – get examples)
Processes (how things work)
Principles (what causes things to happen)
Conceptual knowledge is important IF people must remember something to tell someone else about it – or IF they must apply it to adjust a procedure to solve an unexpected or novel problem 36

37. 37 Supportive Conceptual Knowledge © 2011 Atlantic Training Inc.
Knowledge Types
Presentation During Instruction
Practice and Assessment During Instruction
Type of Information
Example
Objective is to Remember
Proxy for Remember
Objective is to Use or Apply**
Proxy for Use if application is impossible **
Procedure
When to use;
List of action and decision steps
Demonstration of when and how to perform
Recall when to use; Recall action and decision steps
Reorder steps;
Recall next or missing steps
Decide when to use; Perform the steps (actions and decisions)
Critique performance or output of actions and decisions
Supportive Conceptual Knowledge
Fact
Statement of fact
Statement of fact
Recall fact
Recognize fact when presented with distractors
Recall fact in task context
Concepts
(Terms with definitions and example)
List of
defining attributes
Examples and Non—examples of concept
List defining attributes verbally or in writing
Recognize defining attributes when presented with distractors
Identify or generate examples and non-examples
Critique someone else’s identification or generation of examples
Process
(How something works)
List of phases, events and causes at each phase
Examples; simulations of phases, events, and causes
Recall phases, events, and causes
Recognize phases, events, and causes;
Recall missing phases, events, and causes
Identify causes of faults in a process;
Predict events in a process
Critique someone else’s description of causes or prediction of events in a process
Principle
(Cause and effect relationship)
Statement of cause and effect relationship
Examples, demonstration, simulation of cause and effect relationship
Recall the principle
Recognize the principle; Recall missing elements of the principle
Decide if principle applies;
Predict an effect;
Apply the principle to solve a problem, explain a phenomenon or make a decision
Critique someone else’s application of the principle to solve a problem, explain a phenomenon or make a decision
Knowledge Integration
Explain the interconnections among conceptual knowledge components, or the conceptual foundation of procedures, or the procedural implementation of conceptual knowledge components
Opportunities (including instructions, templates, rubrics) to self-explain, discuss, present, describe or select their reasoning about interconnections among knowledge components, for example the principle(s) that justify the application of a procedure.
Knowledge Transfer
Multiple and varied contexts for examples
Multiple and varied contexts for practice and assessment.
Opportunities for students to explain how they would use the knowledge in other contexts 37
© 2011 Atlantic Training Inc.

38. What is Cognitive Task Analysis? Six Tasks
Task 5: Collect five authentic problems trainees will learn to solve
One for demonstration during training
One for practice and feedback
One for progress check
Two for competency tests 38

39. What is Cognitive Task Analysis? Six Tasks
Task 6) Give CTA document from SME A to SME B, C, D, E, etc.) to “correct”.
Flynn (2013) found reviews of one CTA interview by 3 SMEs more efficient and effective than 4 complete interviews.
Develop a “gold standard” CTA for training and/or job aid development – use language novices will understand.
Pull CTA into training design that includes:
Performance objectives and reasons
References to prior knowledge (analogies, examples)
Conceptual knowledge underlying procedure
Demonstration of procedure (worked example)
Part and whole task practice with feedback 39

40. CTA Problems and Exceptions
Cannot use Expert-based CTA IF:
No experts available and/or
New (novel) tasks, technology, science, processes, or
If “experts” not consistently succeeding at task
Problems using CTA:
Analyst training requires many hours of practice.
“Clients” resist added front end expense of structured interviews and/or have used an ineffective CTA method in the past.
Experts sometimes hold back their “secret sauce” and/or reject the gold standard believing it demeans their skills. 40

41. Next Steps in CTA Research
Need to focus research on most effective of the 100+ CTA methods.
Clear operational definition of CTA methods.
Data mining to extend and/or replace structured interviews.
Why are different experts aware of different tasks and steps?
Better understanding of how declarative and procedural knowledge interact during task performance (as task elements change).
Cost-effectiveness of different types of CTA for instruction.
Analysis of why CTA:
Decreases time to learn,
Increases self-efficacy,
Increases persistence and
Increases transfer. 41

42. 42

43. Access the “Publications” tab
References
Evidence for most claims and references in this presentation and a review of the research on CTA can be found at:
Access the “Publications” tab 43