1. Chapter 15 - Gestalt Psychology
A History of Psychology:
Ideas and Context (4th edition)
D. Brett King, Wayne Viney, and
William Douglas Woody
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2. Gestalt Psychology There is no exact translation of the word Gestalt.
Common translations include configuration, form, holistic, structure, and pattern.
Max Wertheimer was the Gestalt visionary.
He promoted Gestalt psychology as a worldview.
Wolfgang Köhler was a prolific researcher, writer, and spokesman for Gestalt psychology.
He was a lonely voice against the Nazi movement.
In 1935, he came to the United States and actively promoted Gestalt psychology.
Kurt Koffka published The Growth of the Mind.
He brought Gestalt theory to developmental psychology.
There is no exact translation of the word Gestalt, but configuration, form, holistic, structure, and pattern are commonly employed in translation.
Max Wertheimer was the Gestalt visionary, and he promoted Gestalt psychology as a worldview beyond just a system of psychology.
Wolfgang Köhler was a prolific researcher, writer, and spokesman for Gestalt psychology in Germany as a lonely voice against the Nazi movement. In 1935, he came to the United States and actively promoted Gestalt psychology for the remained of his life.
Kurt Koffka published The Growth of the Mind, in which he brought Gestalt theory to developmental psychology.

3. Intellectual Background
The intellectual background of Gestalt psychology incorporates a broad field of ideas.
Gestalt psychology traced its roots to the philosophy of Kant and his balance of empiricism and rationalism.
Gestalt psychology used a model of science from field physics instead of Newtonian physics.
Christian von Ehrenfels used the term “Gestalt” when defining the whole as more than the sum of its parts.
The Gestalt psychologists maintained “the radical view that the whole is psychologically, logically, epistemologically, and ontologically prior to its parts. A whole is not only more than the sum of its parts, it is entirely different from a sum of its parts.”
There are compelling commonalities between Gestalt psychology and the work of William James.
Views of experience
The endorsement of methodological pluralism.
The intellectual background of Gestalt psychology incorporates a broad field of ideas.
Gestalt psychology traced its roots to the philosophy of Kant and his balance of empiricism and rationalism.
Gestalt psychology used a model of science from 20th century field physics and the work of Max Plank, Albert Einstein, and Ernst Mach.
Christian von Ehrenfels used the term “Gestalt” when defining the whole as more than the sum of its parts; however, according to Michael Wertheimer, the Gestalt psychologists maintained “the radical view that the whole is psychologically, logically, epistemologically, and ontologically prior to its parts. A whole is not only more than the sum of its parts, it is entirely different from a sum of its parts.”
There are compelling commonalities between Gestalt psychology and the work of William James, particularly in notions of experience and the endorsement of methodological pluralism.

4. Fundamentals
The fundamentals were present in Wertheimer’s research on the phi phenomenon.
The whole is different from the sum of the parts.
Gestalt psychology is primarily a psychology of thinking.
Wertheimer focused on the distinctions between reproductive thinking and productive thinking.
Productive Thinking is marked by insight and genuine comprehension.
We perceive wholes in the world, and the wholes are organized according to principles of perceptual organization.
These processes contribute to the law of Prägnanz.
Perceptual organization tends to be as good as possible under prevailing conditions.
The Gestalt psychologists viewed learning in nonbehavioristic terms.
For example, research on transposition suggested that pigeons learn the relationship between stimuli (e.g., “darker than”) instead of absolute stimulus values.
The fundamentals of Gestalt psychology, primarily that the whole is different from the sum of the parts, were present in Wertheimer’s research on the phi phenomenon.
Gestalt psychology is primarily a psychology of thinking, and Wertheimer focused on the distinctions between reproductive thinking and productive thinking, which is marked by insight and genuine comprehension.
We perceive wholes in the world, and the wholes are organized according to principles of perceptual organization such as figure-ground, similarity, proximity, closure, and good continuation. These processes contribute to the law of Prägnanz, which stated that perceptual organization tends to be as good as possible under prevailing conditions.
The Gestalt psychologists viewed learning in nonbehavioristic terms. For example, Köhler’s research on transposition suggested that pigeons learn the configuration or relationship between stimuli (e.g., “darker than”) instead of absolute stimulus values.

5. Fundamentals Köhler conducted numerous studies of insight in primates.
The notion of insight challenges behavioral perspectives of learning.
Koffka applied Gestalt principles to human development.
He employed a variety of methods, and he distinguished between the view from without and the view from within.
He argued that much of early learning is sensorimotor learning.
Children may learn through imitation.
The highest type of learning for Koffka is ideational learning, a type of learning that uses language.
Koffka argued that even the most primitive phenomena of infants are complex configurations of figure upon a ground.
Köhler conducted numerous studies of insight in primates. The notion of insight challenges behavioral perspectives of learning.
Koffka applied Gestalt principles to human development.
Koffka employed a variety of methods, and he distinguished between the view from without and the view from within.
Koffka argued that much of early learning is sensorimotor learning.
Beyond sensorimotor learning, children may learn through imitation.
The highest type of learning for Koffka is ideational learning, a type of learning that uses language.
Koffka argued that even the most primitive phenomena of infants are complex configurations of figure upon a ground.

6. Scientific Method
Gestalt perspectives on scientific method reflect their acceptance of field physics as a model for psychology.
They emphasized the physical environment.
They used experience to guide analysis in psychology.
They started research with phenomenological investigation.
They accepted a broad range of methods in psychology.
Gestalt perspectives on scientific method reflect their acceptance of 20th century physics as a model for psychology.
They encouraged psychologists to recognize the importance of the physical environment, and to use experience to guide analysis in psychology.
They started research with phenomenological investigation, and they accepted a broad range of methods in psychology.

7. Mind and Brain
Gestalt perspectives on mind and brain reject reductionistic and linear models of mind.
Köhler argued for models of mind based in natural systems.
He used models of mind based in the brain.
He described models in terms of free dynamics.
Köhler advocated isomorphism.
There is a structural correspondence between experience and underlying brain processes.
Gestalt perspectives on mind and brain reject reductionistic and linear models of mind. Köhler argued for models of mind based in natural systems, described in terms of free dynamics and, more specifically, in the brain itself.
Köhler advocated isomorphism, the idea that there is a structural correspondence between experience and underlying brain processes.

8. The Influence of Gestalt Psychology
The influence of Gestalt psychology was limited by the scattering of Gestalt thinkers before and during World War II.
Gestalt ideas inspired systematic approaches to other topics.
Gestalt ideas entered textbooks and mainstream psychology.
Gestalt research findings were a powerful stimulus for research and changes in other systems.
The influence of Gestalt psychology was negatively impacted by the scattering of Gestalt thinkers before and during World War II. Despite these challenges, Gestalt ideas inspired systematic approaches to other topics, Gestalt ideas entered textbooks and mainstream psychology, and Gestalt research findings were a powerful stimulus for research and changes in other systems.

9. Kurt Lewin
Kurt Lewin applied Gestalt concepts to individual and social behavior.
He emphasized the interaction of the person and the environment.
Lewin described life space, including every psychological fact that is influential in the life of an individual at a given time.
Life space is dynamic.
Objects in the life space may have either positive or negative valence.
The interaction of the person and the life space may result in approach-approach conflict, approach-avoidance conflict, or avoidance-avoidance conflict.
Lewin argued that needs are associated with tension systems .
The satisfaction of a need is associated with the dissipation of tension.
Kurt Lewin applied Gestalt concepts to individual and social behavior. He emphasized the interaction of the person and the environment.
Lewin described life space, including every psychological fact that is influential in the life of an individual at a given time. Life space is dynamic, and objects in the life space may have either positive or negative valence. The interaction of the person and the life space may result in approach-approach conflict, approach-avoidance conflict, or avoidance-avoidance conflict.
Lewin argued that needs are associated with tension systems and that the satisfaction of a need is associated with the dissipation of tension.

10. Kurt Lewin
Bluma Zeigarnik worked with Lewin to demonstrate the Zeigarnik effect in recall.
The Zeigarnik effect is the tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed tasks.
Group dynamics is the study of the effects of groups on individuals and individuals on groups.
Lewin studied industrial work groups, educational groups, and casual interest groups.
Bluma Zeigarnik worked with Lewin to demonstrate the Zeigarnik effect in recall (i.e., the tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed tasks).
Group dynamics, the study of the effects of groups on individuals and individuals on groups, formed a major part of Lewin’s research near the end of his life; he studied industrial work groups, educational groups, and casual interest groups.

11. The Second Generation
The second generation of Gestalt psychologists furthered the work of the founders.
Karl Dunker studied induced motion, functional fixedness, and other aspects of the psychology of thinking.
Hewig von Restorff demonstrated the Köhler -von Restorff effect, describing the increased likelihood of recall for distinctive items on a list.
Solomon Asch’s work in cognition, learning, personality, and social psychology carried a Gestalt flavor.
Mutzafer Sherif used a Gestalt approach in studies of the autokinetic effect, and
in his boys’ camp experiments on groups and prejudice.
Other researchers influenced by Gestalt psychology include Edward Chase Tolman, Kurt Goldstein, Hans Wallach, Fritz Heider, Wolfgang Metzger, and Herman Witkin.
The second generation of Gestalt psychologists furthered the work of the founders.
Karl Dunker studied induced motion, functional fixedness, and other aspects of the psychology of thinking.
Hewig von Restorff demonstrated the Köhler -von Restorff effect, known less accurately as the von Restorff effect, describing the increased likelihood of recall for distinctive items on a list.
Solomon Asch studied with Wertheimer, and Asch’s work in cognition, learning, personality, and social psychology carry a Gestalt flavor.
Mutzafer Sherif used a Gestalt approach in studies of the autokinetic effect and in his boys’ camp experiments on groups and prejudice.
Other researchers influenced by Gestalt psychology include Edward Chase Tolman, Kurt Goldstein, Hans Wallach, Fritz Heider, Wolfgang Metzger, and Herman Witkin.

12. Misunderstandings of Gestalt Principles
The complexity of Gestalt psychology has generated several misunderstandings regarding Gestalt principles.
Contrary to common assumptions, Gestalt psychology is conceptually unrelated to Gestalt Therapy, the humanistic theory of Fritz Pearls.
Contrary to the allegations of Pavlov, the Gestalt psychologists accepted analysis and argued for an experientially guided analysis.
If a unit is a genuine part of a whole, then it is a legitimate task of the scientist to understand that unit.
Gestalt psychology is not an explicitly nativist approach.
Gestalt thinkers argue that nature and nurture are intertwined.
They advocated research on three factors that influence behavior: physical forces (called invariant dynamics), anatomical constraints from evolution, and learning.
Gestalt psychologists emphasize the role of past experience and present conditions.
The complexity of Gestalt psychology has generated several misunderstandings regarding Gestalt principles.
Gestalt psychology is conceptually unrelated to Gestalt Therapy, the humanistic theory of Fritz Pearls.
Contrary to the allegations of Pavlov, the Gestalt psychologists accepted analysis and argued for an experientially guided analysis. If a unit is a genuine part of a whole, then it is a legitimate task of the scientist to understand that unit.
Gestalt psychology is not an explicitly nativist approach, and Gestalt thinkers argue that nature and nurture are intertwined. They advocated research on three factors that influence behavior: physical forces (called invariant dynamics), anatomical constraints from evolution, and learning.
Gestalt psychologists emphasize the role of past experience and present conditions.

13. Applied Psychology Gestalt psychology influenced applied psychology.
Gestalt psychology influenced Rudolph Arnheim and the psychology of art,
George Katona and the psychology of education, teaching, and memory, and
Catherine Stern and mathematical education.
Gestalt psychology influenced psychotherapy through the work of Heinrich Schulte, Adhémar Gelb and Kurt Goldstein.
Gestalt psychology influenced applied psychology.
Gestalt psychology influenced Rudolph Arnheim and the psychology of art, George Katona and the psychology of education, teaching, and memory, and Catherine Stern and mathematical education.
Gestalt psychology influenced psychotherapy through the work of Heinrich Schulte, Adhémar Gelb and Kurt Goldstein.

14. Continued Relevance
Gestalt psychology continues to be relevant in psychology and in science.
Fritjof Capra maintains that the new scientific world view contains
a shift from the part to the whole,
a shift from structure of process,
a shift from “objective science” to “epistemic science,”
a shift from viewing knowledge as building blocks to viewing knowledge as a network, and
a shift from truth to approximate description.
The Gestalt perspective is also implicit in several contemporary fields of psychology including
memory and cognition
Perception
evolutionary psychology
visual neuroscience
artificial intelligence.
Gestalt psychology continues to be relevant in psychology and in science.
Fritjof Capra maintains that the new scientific world view will contain a shift from the part to the whole, a shift from structure of process, a shift from “objective science” to “epistemic science,” a shift from viewing knowledge as building blocks to viewing knowledge as a network, and a shift from truth to approximate description.
The Gestalt perspective is also implicit in several contemporary fields of psychology including memory and cognition, perception, evolutionary psychology, visual neuroscience, and artificial intelligence.