1. Prokaryotes- most numerous living organism group Biology Exploring Life- Chapter 16

3. Tree of Life- 3 groups Yellow = Bacteria Green = Archaea Blue= Eukarya

4. Bacteria vs Archaea Environment/habitat- RNA polymerase- Presence of introns- Effects of Antibiotics- Cell wall structure – Presence of peptidoglycan

5. What is Peptidoglycan? A lattice structure in the bacterial cell wall.latticecell wall – linear chains of alternating amino sugarssugars N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetylmuramic acidN-acetylglucosamine – short peptide chains of three to five amino acidspeptideamino acids – The peptide chains form cross-linkspeptide resulting in a 3D mesh-like structure. Function- – Strength – Counteracts the osmotic pressure of the cytoplasm.osmotic pressurecytoplasm – Involved in binary fission during bacterial cell reproduction.

6. Peptidoglycan Structure

7. Basic Bacterial Cell Bacteria have a basic cell structure that includes a cell wall, plasma membrane, ribosomes, DNA that is not enclosed in a membrane, pili, and flagella for movement.

8. Classification- Shapes 3 main shapes 1. Coccus,cocci- circular/spherical – Arrangement of cells- – Pairs, chains, clusters, tetrads – Examples- prefix names Diplococci- 2 cells Streptococci- chain /string cells Staphylococci- cluster-grapelike Sarcina- tetrad

9. Gram Stain Examples of Cocci

10. Staphylococcal infections: blisters, boils, systemic infections MRSA-

11. Shapes- 2. Bacillus, bacilli- rod-shaped – Various forms -short or long – Single or in chains – Examples- E. coli Bacillus subtilus Lactobacillus vaginalis Pseudomonas aeruginosa

12. Gram Stain Gallery of Bacilli

13. Pseudomonas aeruginosa grows at 42 o C. Hot tub folliculitis

14. Shapes- 3. Spirillum, spirilli- spiral shaped bacteria Examples- spirochetes – Treponema pallidum- syphilus- STD – Borrelia burgdorferi- lyme disease

15. Lyme disease caused by the bacterium, Borrelia burgdorferi Transmitted to humans by bite of infected blacklegged ticks. Most common vectors - Ixodes scapularis ( common deer tick ) has also been carried by the Lone Star tick, Most commonly found in Northeastern and North Central United States. Typical symptoms - fever, headache, fatigue, and a characteristic skin rash called erythema migrans. Untreated, infection can spread to the heart, the joints and the nervous system. Lyme disease is often diagnosed based on the characteristic rash (bull’s eye) and an exposure to infected ticks Borrelia burgdorferi is often diagnosed using an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay with Western blot confirmation

16. 2. Bacterial Cell Wall structures Different from plants, fungi and protists Have peptidoglycan Bacteria are divided into 2 main groups based on differences in their cell walls. – The amount of peptidoglycan – If they have an outer lipid membrane Gram Stain – 1884- Hans Christian Gram Differential stain Gram Positive Bacteria Gram Negative Bacteria

17. Gram Positive vs Gram Negative Cell walls

18. Gram Positive Bacteria Cell wall consists of a thick outer wall of peptidoglycan Stain blue/purple in the gram stain test. Retain(keep) the initial crystal violet stain color. Do not decolorize with alcohol. Are more sensitive to Penicillin antibiotics.

19. Gram Negative Bacteria Two parts to their cell wall – An Inner thin layer of peptidoglycan – An Outer lipid membrane. Do not retain (keep) the initial crystal violet stain. They are decolorized due to the outer lipid membrane They pick up the 2 nd stain ( counterstain) safranin and stain pink/red.

20. Gram Stain Procedure See handout for procedure Refer to handout for results after each step.

21. Gram Positive vs Gram Negative Cell walls

22. Importance of the Gram Stain The key test to differentiate bacteria. Can be done rapidly- a “STAT” test Used to divide bacteria into one of two main groups based on cell wall type. Used to determine shape (morphology) of bacteria Used to presumptively identify the infectious bacterium. Used by physicians to prescribe antibiotics based on type of cell wall. Key if unable to grow the bacterium

23. 3. Motility- movement Move toward or away from signals – Food, light, oxygen, toxins Flagella- – Anchored in plasma membrane and cell wall. – Bacterial flagella- different from eukaryotes – Different types of flagella- based on numbers and location on bacterial cell. – bacilli and spirilli are motile – Cocci are nonmotile- do not move Pili- allow bacteria to adhere to surfaces and each other. Slime layers-

24. Different types of flagella monotrichous = single flagellum at one end. amphitrichous = flagella at both ends lophotrichous = tuft of many flagella at one end or both ends. peritrichous = flagella all around the cell Motility can be identified in a couple of different ways: – the hanging drop wet mount- look for directional movement. – Semi-solid motility agar- stab and incubate overnight.

25. 4. Environment Aerobic bacteria- need oxygen to survive. Anaerobic bacteria- live without oxygen, strict anaerobes- cannot tolerate oxygen. Most bacteria can live in both environments- – Facultative anaerobes.

26. Binary fission- clones-results in two identical cells – Mutations can occur in copying of DNA Simpler than mitosis Rapid, continuous, ~ every 20 minutes, exponential growth- 1,2,4,8,16,32. Refrigeration slows down rate of reproduction Reproduction in Bacteria

27. Bacterial Growth Curve- 4 stages- Typical S curve. 1. lag phase- start up 2. log-logarithmic phase- rapid exponential growth 3. stationary phase- limiting factors( food, water, space, waste) – Carrying capacity =most numbers of population due to limiting factors – Death rate= birth rate. 4. Death phase. Review Pg 376- Question # 18.

28. 3 methods of Genetic Variation Transformation- bacteria takes up DNA from environment Conjugation- 2 bacterial cell join and transfer genetic material- plasmids Transduction- when viruses (bacteriophage) infect bacteria with their genes.

29. Transformation and Conjugation

30. Transduction

31. Endospores Special resting cells. – Thick protective coat – surrounding the chromosome, very resistant. Survival in unfavorable conditions – Lack of water, nutrients, heat, cold, toxins – Can last for years. – Absorb water when favorable environment and grow again. Example- Bacillus anthracis- anthrax

32. Modes of Nutrition How organisms obtain energy and carbon atoms. Energy by photosynthesis –light - use prefix photo. Energy from chemical sources – inorganic or organic- use prefix chemo. Autotrophs obtain carbon atoms from carbon dioxide. Heterotrophs obtain carbon from existing organic molecules (such as those in food). Bacteria- most numerous organisms- found in all 4 modes Photoautotrophs- carry out photosynthesis- plants, plant like protists, and photosynthetic bacteria Chemoautotrophs use carbon dioxide as a carbon source, but they extract energy from inorganic substances such as hydrogen sulfide or ammonia. All chemoautotrophs are prokaryotes. Photoheterotrophs use light energy to make ATP but obtain their carbon in organic form. This mode of nutrition is only found in certain prokaryotes. Chemoheterotrophs consume organic molecules for both energy and carbon. Found in many bacteria, animal and fungi like protists, fungi, and animals. We are chemoheterotrophs.

33. 4 categories of nutrition Plants, algae, prokaryotes Prokaryotes only Prokaryotes, animal and fungus like protists, all fungi, all animals

34. Cyanobacterium Photoautotrophs Ancient Oxygen released in photosynthesis Oxygen revolution – Extinction of some – Survival in anaerobic environments – Adaptation for organisms that can survive in oxygen- aerobic organisms- many prokaryotes, nearly all eukaryotes. Oxygen used to make most amounts of ATP- energy.

35. Important functions of prokaryotes 16.3 Chemical recycling Decomposers- break down organic waste and dead organisms in environment. – Returns carbon to atmosphere as CO2.- carbon cycle Nitrogen cycle- nitrogen fixing bacteria- N2- NO3 and ammonium to be used by plants.

36. Bioremediation Use of prokaryotes to remove pollutants from water, air, and soil. Sewage treatment Pseudomonas sp.- oil degradation on beaches. Thiobacillus- lives in acidic mine environments, removes lead and mercury in mine runoff. Making vitamins and antibiotics Genetic engineering- making protein products.

37. Pathogenic Bacteria Pathogens- disease causing microorganisms. Body defenses- examples- – Skin, normal biotic flora Bacteria poisons- toxins – 2 types Secreted by the bacterial cell- exotoxin – Food poisoning- Clostridium botulinum – Staphylococci Toxin is part of cell wall – Drop in blood pressure-shock – Salmonella food poisoning

38. Defenses against disease Washing hands Care in food prep. Water control Good hygiene Vaccines Antibiotics – Major Health Concern- resistance of bacteria- mutations and genetic variation