1. Culture and Society

2. Culture Culture is the values the members of a given group hold, the languages they speak, the symbols they use, the norms they follow, and the goods created and used in the culture. A value is an abstract ideal similar to a norm that varies across different cultures. Norms are the written and unwritten principles and rules that people are expected to observe. Most people in society follow norms as we have discussed already.

3. Culture con. Material goods are the physical objects in society from clothes to houses. Technology and globalization have brought cultures closer together. For example, English is now taught as a second language across Europe and Asia because of how important it is for business. However, values and norms change very slowly and gradually. America places a very high value on individualism compared to most Asian countries as one example.

4. Society Society is a very similar concept to culture. Society is defined as a system of interrelationships that connect individuals together. Society and culture are interdependent on each other and must both be present for the other to exist. One way to remember the difference between the two concepts is that we apply our knowledge of culture in society.

5. Society con. A cultural turn is how sociologists have recently emphasized the role of culture in daily life. Many studies look at how culture impacts daily life and how people of different cultures will act completely differently in the same situations.

6. Sociobiology Sociobiology is the application of biological principles to explain the social activities of animals and humans. Edward Wilson helped create a resurgence of sociobiology with his book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis in 1975. Wilson argued that genetics influence behavior. A prime example of this is sexual behavior and male courtship of women. In not only animals but human beings, men are more likely to be promiscuous because they do not have the investment in childbirth that women have through childrearing.

7. Sociobiology con. Instincts are the inborn biologically fixed patterns of action found in all cultures. There is evidence that some instincts such as the ability to recognize faces humans are born with, but most instincts are developed over time.

8. Cultural diversity Most cultures can be divided into subcultures where there are different groups with similar values within a larger culture. Thus, multiculturalism exists in most societies where there is cultural diversity but also some values that are shared. The term “melting pot” is often used to describe societies such as New York City or the United States where immigrant cultures have assimilated into American culture.

9. Diversity con. Ethnocentrism is something that sociologists seek to avoid, which is judging other cultures by the standards of one’s own. Cultural relativism is a similar concept that refers to judging a society by its own standards. Most Americans consider Middle Eastern countries to be sexist and discriminatory because they take an ethnocentric view. Using a cultural relativist view shows many practices considered “backwards” in a different light.

10. Diversity con. Cultural universals are something that is found in all societies. Language is one example of this because there is no known society that has ever existed without some method of language or meaning of communication. All cultures also have some form of family system and marriage concept also the specifics of these can vary.

11. Cultural universals The linguistic relativity hypothesis advanced by Edward Sapir in the 1930s argues that language influences our perception of the world. A common example of this is the Spanish word for spouse, esposa also translates to handcuffs. Does that say anything about the traditional view of marriage to Spanish speakers. Think about the cultural difference between calling a Siberian husky a dog or a wolf. Language has cultural implications beyond the meaning itself.

12. Cultural universals con. A signifier is any vehicle of meaning used to communicate, such as a writing or picture. Architecture and clothing are also signifiers because they can communicate certain things such as style or personal preference. Semiotics is the analysis of nonverbal cultural meanings and is a very useful tool for comparing cultures.

13. Premodern societies The earliest human societies were hunters and gatherers who moved from place to place to obtain food. This type of society is mostly extinct. These were followed by agrarian societies that relied on growing crops and pastoral societies that used domesticated livestock as their main food source. Around 6,000 B.C. these societies were replaced by traditional societies that were effectively city- states based on agriculture.

14. Modern societies Industrialization is the emergence of machine production based on the use of power resources like steam or electricity. First world societies used industrialization and developed systems of capitalism and free enterprise. These included the U.S., Canada, Japan, Australia, and Western Europe. The Second World was composed of the Soviet Union and its allies who relied on communism and a centrally planned economy.

15. The developing world The Third World is a term used to describe former colonies of the First World that have struggled to develop economically. This includes most of Africa, South and Central America. Newly industrializing economies or emerging economies refer to former colonies of the First World that have large rates of economic growth in the last thirty years. These include Brazil, South Korea, Mexico and India.

16. The developing world After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Second World effectively disappeared and many former communist states like Russia and China have introduced elements of capitalism into their economies and are generally considered to be First World countries. However, the lack of democracy in both countries governments makes some reluctant to include these countries with the U.S. and the West.