Chapter Seven New Leftism Introduction: The New Left was the left-wing movements in the 1960s and 1970s that, unlike the earlier leftist focus on union.

Chapter Seven New Leftism Introduction: The New Left was the left-wing movements in the 1960s and 1970s that, unlike the earlier leftist focus on union activism, instead adopted a political activism commonly called social activism. The confused response of the Communist Party of the USA and the Communist Party of Great Britain to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 created a crisis of confidence. Independent Marxist intellectuals began to develop a more individualistic approach. In Western Europe, this occurred inside and outside social democratic and Communist parties, contributing toward the development of eurocommunism. Introduction: The New Left was the left-wing movements in the 1960s and 1970s that, unlike the earlier leftist focus on union activism, instead adopted a political activism commonly called social activism. The confused response of the Communist Party of the USA and the Communist Party of Great Britain to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 created a crisis of confidence. Independent Marxist intellectuals began to develop a more individualistic approach. In Western Europe, this occurred inside and outside social democratic and Communist parties, contributing toward the development of eurocommunism.left-wingsocial activismCommunist Party of the USA Communist Party of Great BritainHungarian Revolution of 1956Marxistindividualisticleft-wingsocial activismCommunist Party of the USA Communist Party of Great BritainHungarian Revolution of 1956Marxistindividualistic The U.S. “New Left” is associated with the Hippie movement, college campus mass protest movements and a broadening of focus from protesting class-based oppression to include issues such as gender, race, and sexual orientation. The British “New Left” was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of “Old Left” parties in the post-World War II period. The U.S. “New Left” is associated with the Hippie movement, college campus mass protest movements and a broadening of focus from protesting class-based oppression to include issues such as gender, race, and sexual orientation. The British “New Left” was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of “Old Left” parties in the post-World War II period.Hippie movementclassgenderracesexual orientationOld LeftWorld War IIHippie movementclassgenderracesexual orientationOld LeftWorld War II

Section One Formation and Development of the New Leftism Antonio Gramsci Georg Lukács Karl Korsch Jean Paul Sartre Frankfurt School: Max Horkheimer, Antonio Gramsci Georg Lukács Karl Korsch Jean Paul Sartre Frankfurt School: Max Horkheimer, 柯尔施 ( 德 ) Theodor Adorno, and Jürgen Habermas in 1965 柯尔施 ( 德 ) Theodor Adorno, and Jürgen Habermas in 1965 Friedrich Pollock Walter Benjamin Jean Baudrillard Gerald Cohen John Roemer Merleau-Ponty 波洛克 ( 德 ) 本杰明 ( 德 ) 博德里拉 ( 法,206) 柯享 ( 英,205) 罗默 ( 美,205) 梅洛 - 庞蒂 ( 法 ) 波洛克 ( 德 ) 本杰明 ( 德 ) 博德里拉 ( 法,206) 柯享 ( 英,205) 罗默 ( 美,205) 梅洛 - 庞蒂 ( 法 )

I. Georg Lukács, Antonio Gramsci and emergence of the New Left: 1. Components of the New Left: Neo-Marxists, postmodernists, and postcolonial critics. I. Georg Lukács, Antonio Gramsci and emergence of the New Left: 1. Components of the New Left: Neo-Marxists, postmodernists, and postcolonial critics. 2. Neo-Marxism is a loose term for various twentieth-century approaches that amend or extend Marxism and Marxist theory, usually by incorporating elements from other intellectual traditions, such as: critical theory or psychoanalysis. Many theorists and groups designated as neo-Marxist have attempted to supplement the perceived deficiencies of orthodox Marxism or dialectical materialism. 2. Neo-Marxism is a loose term for various twentieth-century approaches that amend or extend Marxism and Marxist theory, usually by incorporating elements from other intellectual traditions, such as: critical theory or psychoanalysis. Many theorists and groups designated as neo-Marxist have attempted to supplement the perceived deficiencies of orthodox Marxism or dialectical materialism.MarxismMarxist theory critical theorypsychoanalysisorthodox Marxismdialectical materialismMarxismMarxist theory critical theorypsychoanalysisorthodox Marxismdialectical materialism Neo-Marxism comes under the broader heading of New Left thinking. Neo-Marxism is also used frequently to describe opposition to inequalities experienced by Lesser Developed Countries in a globalized world. In a sociological sense, neo-Marxism adds Max Weber's broader understanding of social inequality, such as status and power, to Marxist philosophy. Strains of neo-Marxism include: critical theory, analytical Marxism and French structural Marxism. Neo-Marxism comes under the broader heading of New Left thinking. Neo-Marxism is also used frequently to describe opposition to inequalities experienced by Lesser Developed Countries in a globalized world. In a sociological sense, neo-Marxism adds Max Weber's broader understanding of social inequality, such as status and power, to Marxist philosophy. Strains of neo-Marxism include: critical theory, analytical Marxism and French structural Marxism.New LeftMax Webersocial inequalitystatus power critical theoryanalytical Marxismstructural MarxismNew LeftMax Webersocial inequalitystatus power critical theoryanalytical Marxismstructural Marxism 3. György Lukács (1885 – 1971) was a Hungarian Marxist philosopher and literary critic. Most scholars consider him to be the founder of the tradition of Western Marxism. He contributed the ideas of reification and class consciousness to Marxist philosophy and theory. 3. György Lukács (1885 – 1971) was a Hungarian Marxist philosopher and literary critic. Most scholars consider him to be the founder of the tradition of Western Marxism. He contributed the ideas of reification and class consciousness to Marxist philosophy and theory.HungarianMarxistWestern Marxismreificationclass consciousnessHungarianMarxistWestern Marxismreificationclass consciousness

History and Class Consciousness: Written between 1919 and 1922 and first published in 1923, it initiated the current of thought that came to be known as Western Marxism. The book is notable for contributing to debates concerning Marxism and reconstructing of Marx's theory of alienation. Lukács's work elaborates and expands upon Marxist theories such as ideology, false consciousness, reification and class consciousness. “It is the scientific conviction that dialectical materialism is the road to truth and that its methods can be developed, expanded and deepened only along the lines laid down by its founders.” History and Class Consciousness: Written between 1919 and 1922 and first published in 1923, it initiated the current of thought that came to be known as Western Marxism. The book is notable for contributing to debates concerning Marxism and reconstructing of Marx's theory of alienation. Lukács's work elaborates and expands upon Marxist theories such as ideology, false consciousness, reification and class consciousness. “It is the scientific conviction that dialectical materialism is the road to truth and that its methods can be developed, expanded and deepened only along the lines laid down by its founders.”Western Marxism Marx's theory of alienationideologyfalse consciousness reificationclass consciousnessWestern Marxism Marx's theory of alienationideologyfalse consciousness reificationclass consciousness Lukács criticizes Engels’ Anti-Dühring, charging that he “does not even mention the most vital interaction, namely the dialectical relation between subject and object in the historical process”. This dialectical relation between subject and object gives the basis for Lukács' critique of Kant’s epistemology, according to which the subject is the exterior, universal and contemplating subject, separated from the object. Lukács criticizes Engels’ Anti-Dühring, charging that he “does not even mention the most vital interaction, namely the dialectical relation between subject and object in the historical process”. This dialectical relation between subject and object gives the basis for Lukács' critique of Kant’s epistemology, according to which the subject is the exterior, universal and contemplating subject, separated from the object.EngelsAnti-DühringKantepistemologyEngelsAnti-DühringKantepistemology Lukács presents the category of reification （具体化） whereby, due to the commodity nature of capitalist society, social relations become objectified, precluding the ability for a spontaneous emergence of class consciousness. It is in this context that the need for a party in the Leninist sense emerges, the subjective aspect of the re- invigorated Marxian dialectic. Lukács presents the category of reification （具体化） whereby, due to the commodity nature of capitalist society, social relations become objectified, precluding the ability for a spontaneous emergence of class consciousness. It is in this context that the need for a party in the Leninist sense emerges, the subjective aspect of the re- invigorated Marxian dialectic.reificationcommodityLeninistreificationcommodityLeninist

4. Antonio Gramsci (1891 – 1937) was an Italian philosopher, writer, politician and political theorist. A founding member and onetime leader of the Communist Party of Italy, he was imprisoned by Benito Mussolini’s Fascist regime. Gramsci is seen as one of the most important Marxist thinkers of the twentieth century, in particular as a key thinker in the development of Western Marxism. He wrote more than 30 notebooks and 3000 pages of history and analysis during his imprisonment. These writings, known as the Prison Notebooks, contain Gramsci’s tracing of Italian history and nationalism, as well as some ideas in Marxist theory, critical theory and educational theory, such as: 4. Antonio Gramsci (1891 – 1937) was an Italian philosopher, writer, politician and political theorist. A founding member and onetime leader of the Communist Party of Italy, he was imprisoned by Benito Mussolini’s Fascist regime. Gramsci is seen as one of the most important Marxist thinkers of the twentieth century, in particular as a key thinker in the development of Western Marxism. He wrote more than 30 notebooks and 3000 pages of history and analysis during his imprisonment. These writings, known as the Prison Notebooks, contain Gramsci’s tracing of Italian history and nationalism, as well as some ideas in Marxist theory, critical theory and educational theory, such as: Benito MussoliniFascistWestern MarxismMarxist theorycritical theory Benito MussoliniFascistWestern MarxismMarxist theorycritical theory Cultural hegemony as a means of maintaining the capitalist state. Cultural hegemony as a means of maintaining the capitalist state.Cultural hegemonyCultural hegemony The need for popular workers’ education to encourage development of intellectuals from the working class. The need for popular workers’ education to encourage development of intellectuals from the working class. The distinction between political society, and civil society where leadership is constituted through ideology or by means of consent. The distinction between political society, and civil society where leadership is constituted through ideology or by means of consent. Absolute historicism. Absolute historicism.historicism The critique of economic determinism (Both economic changes and cultural changes are expressions of a basic historical process). The critique of economic determinism (Both economic changes and cultural changes are expressions of a basic historical process).economic determinismeconomic determinism The critique of philosophical materialism (no objectivity, but only a universal intersubjectivity to be established in a communist society). The critique of philosophical materialism (no objectivity, but only a universal intersubjectivity to be established in a communist society).philosophical materialismintersubjectivityphilosophical materialismintersubjectivity

II. Major schools of Neo-Marxism: 1. The Frankfurt School: a school of neo-Marxist sociology and philosophy in the tradition of critical theory, which was associated with the early Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt am Main. The school gathered together dissident Marxists who believed that some of Marx’s followers had come to parrot a narrow selection of Marx’s ideas. They were particularly influenced by the failure of the working-class revolution in Western Europe and by the rise of Nazism. II. Major schools of Neo-Marxism: 1. The Frankfurt School: a school of neo-Marxist sociology and philosophy in the tradition of critical theory, which was associated with the early Institute for Social Research at the University of Frankfurt am Main. The school gathered together dissident Marxists who believed that some of Marx’s followers had come to parrot a narrow selection of Marx’s ideas. They were particularly influenced by the failure of the working-class revolution in Western Europe and by the rise of Nazism.neo-Marxistsociologyphilosophy critical theoryInstitute for Social ResearchUniversity of Frankfurt am MainMarxistsMarxNazismneo-Marxistsociologyphilosophy critical theoryInstitute for Social ResearchUniversity of Frankfurt am MainMarxistsMarxNazism They thus drew on the insights of psychoanalysis ( 精神分裂分析 ), sociology, and existential philosophy, and Kant’s critical philosophy. A key influence also came from the publication in the 1930s of Marx’s Economic-Philosophical Manuscripts and The German Ideology. Max Horkheimer took over as the Institute of Social Research’s director in 1930. Following Adolf Hitler’s rise to power, the Institute moved to Geneva, then to New York in 1934, affiliated with Columbia University. It re-settled in Frankfurt in the 1950s. They thus drew on the insights of psychoanalysis ( 精神分裂分析 ), sociology, and existential philosophy, and Kant’s critical philosophy. A key influence also came from the publication in the 1930s of Marx’s Economic-Philosophical Manuscripts and The German Ideology. Max Horkheimer took over as the Institute of Social Research’s director in 1930. Following Adolf Hitler’s rise to power, the Institute moved to Geneva, then to New York in 1934, affiliated with Columbia University. It re-settled in Frankfurt in the 1950s.psychoanalysis sociologyexistential philosophyKantcritical philosophyEconomic-Philosophical ManuscriptsThe German IdeologyMax HorkheimerGenevaColumbia UniversityFrankfurtpsychoanalysis sociologyexistential philosophyKantcritical philosophyEconomic-Philosophical ManuscriptsThe German IdeologyMax HorkheimerGenevaColumbia UniversityFrankfurt Critical theory is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. The term has two quite different meanings with different origins and histories, one originating in social theory and the other in literary criticism. In sociology and philosophy, it is shorthand for critical theory of society. Critical theory is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities. The term has two quite different meanings with different origins and histories, one originating in social theory and the other in literary criticism. In sociology and philosophy, it is shorthand for critical theory of society.society culturesocial sciences humanitiessocial theory literary criticismsociologyphilosophysociety culturesocial sciences humanitiessocial theory literary criticismsociologyphilosophy

Max Horkheimer ( 霍克海默,1895–1973) was a German philosopher and sociologist. He is well known for being a leader in the Frankfurt School. His important works: The Eclipse of Reason (1947), The Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947) and Critical Theory: Selected Essays (1972). Max Horkheimer ( 霍克海默,1895–1973) was a German philosopher and sociologist. He is well known for being a leader in the Frankfurt School. His important works: The Eclipse of Reason (1947), The Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947) and Critical Theory: Selected Essays (1972).German philosophersociologistFrankfurt SchoolGerman philosophersociologistFrankfurt School Herbert Marcuse ( 马尔库塞, 1898–1979) was a German-Jewish philosopher, political theorist and sociologist, and a member of the Frankfurt School. Celebrated as the “Father of the New Left,” his best known works are Eros and Civilization, One-Dimensional Man and The Aesthetic Dimension. Marcuse was a major intellectual influence on the student movements of the 1960s. Herbert Marcuse ( 马尔库塞, 1898–1979) was a German-Jewish philosopher, political theorist and sociologist, and a member of the Frankfurt School. Celebrated as the “Father of the New Left,” his best known works are Eros and Civilization, One-Dimensional Man and The Aesthetic Dimension. Marcuse was a major intellectual influence on the student movements of the 1960s.GermanJewish philosopherpolitical theoristsociologist Frankfurt SchoolEros and CivilizationOne-Dimensional Man The Aesthetic DimensionGermanJewish philosopherpolitical theoristsociologist Frankfurt SchoolEros and CivilizationOne-Dimensional Man The Aesthetic Dimension Theodor W. Adorno ( 阿道诺, 1903–1969) was a German-born international intellectual, sociologist, philosopher, musicologist, and composer, a member of the Frankfurt School. The label social philosopher emphasizes the socially critical aspect of his philosophical thinking. Theodor W. Adorno ( 阿道诺, 1903–1969) was a German-born international intellectual, sociologist, philosopher, musicologist, and composer, a member of the Frankfurt School. The label social philosopher emphasizes the socially critical aspect of his philosophical thinking.Germanintellectualsociologistphilosophermusicologist composerFrankfurt Schoolsocial philosopherGermanintellectualsociologistphilosophermusicologist composerFrankfurt Schoolsocial philosopher Erich Seligmann Fromm ( 弗罗姆, 1900–1980) was an internationally renowned social psychologist, psychoanalyst, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist, associated with the Frankfurt School. Erich Seligmann Fromm ( 弗罗姆, 1900–1980) was an internationally renowned social psychologist, psychoanalyst, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist, associated with the Frankfurt School.social psychologist humanisticphilosopherdemocratic socialist Frankfurt Schoolsocial psychologist humanisticphilosopherdemocratic socialist Frankfurt School

Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin (1892–1940) was a German- Jewish Marxist philosopher-sociologist, literary critic, translator and essayist, associated with the Frankfurt School. He combined historical materialism, German idealism, and Jewish mysticism and made a novel contribution to Western Marxism and aesthetic theory. Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin (1892–1940) was a German- Jewish Marxist philosopher-sociologist, literary critic, translator and essayist, associated with the Frankfurt School. He combined historical materialism, German idealism, and Jewish mysticism and made a novel contribution to Western Marxism and aesthetic theory.German JewishMarxistphilosophersociologistliterary critictranslator essayistFrankfurt Schoolhistorical materialismGerman idealismJewishmysticismWestern MarxismGerman JewishMarxistphilosophersociologistliterary critictranslator essayistFrankfurt Schoolhistorical materialismGerman idealismJewishmysticismWestern Marxism Friedrich Pollock ( 波洛克,1894–1970) was a German-Jewish social scientist and philosopher, one of the founders of the Institute for Social Research. Friedrich Pollock ( 波洛克,1894–1970) was a German-Jewish social scientist and philosopher, one of the founders of the Institute for Social Research.GermanJewish social scientistphilosopherInstitute for Social ResearchGermanJewish social scientistphilosopherInstitute for Social Research 2. Existential Marxism: Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (1905 –1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the leading figures in 20th century French philosophy and Existentialism. 2. Existential Marxism: Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (1905 –1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the leading figures in 20th century French philosophy and Existentialism.existentialistphilosopherplaywright novelistscreenwriterpolitical activistbiographerliterary critic20th century French philosophyExistentialismexistentialistphilosopherplaywright novelistscreenwriterpolitical activistbiographerliterary critic20th century French philosophyExistentialism The main idea of Jean-Paul Sartre is that we are, as humans, “condemned to be free.” This theory relies upon his belief that there is no creator. Sartre says that if one considered a paper knife, one would assume that the creator would have had a plan for it: an essence. Sartre said that human beings have no essence before their existence because there is no Creator. Thus: “existence precedes essence”. Since one cannot explain their own actions and behavior by referencing any specific human nature, they are necessarily fully responsible for those actions. The main idea of Jean-Paul Sartre is that we are, as humans, “condemned to be free.” This theory relies upon his belief that there is no creator. Sartre says that if one considered a paper knife, one would assume that the creator would have had a plan for it: an essence. Sartre said that human beings have no essence before their existence because there is no Creator. Thus: “existence precedes essence”. Since one cannot explain their own actions and behavior by referencing any specific human nature, they are necessarily fully responsible for those actions.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty ( 梅洛 - 庞蒂, 1908–1961) was a French phenomenological philosopher. In his Phenomenology of Perception (1945), Merleau-Ponty developed the concept of the body-subject as an alternative to the Cartesian “cogito”( 我思 ). Consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined and mutually “engaged” Maurice Merleau-Ponty ( 梅洛 - 庞蒂, 1908–1961) was a French phenomenological philosopher. In his Phenomenology of Perception (1945), Merleau-Ponty developed the concept of the body-subject as an alternative to the Cartesian “cogito”( 我思 ). Consciousness, the world, and the human body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined and mutually “engaged”French phenomenologicalphilosopherCartesianperceivingFrench phenomenologicalphilosopherCartesianperceiving 3. Neo-positivist Marxism: Galvano Della Volpe ( 沃尔佩,1895– 1968) was an Italian Marxist theorist, included in the empirical or neo-Kantian school of Western Marxism. What has become known as the Della Volpean reconstruction is an attempt to prove the scientificity of Marxism. Della Volpe argues that the reconstruction of the Hegelian dialectic effects a transition from “a priori assertions to experimental forecasts”. 3. Neo-positivist Marxism: Galvano Della Volpe ( 沃尔佩,1895– 1968) was an Italian Marxist theorist, included in the empirical or neo-Kantian school of Western Marxism. What has become known as the Della Volpean reconstruction is an attempt to prove the scientificity of Marxism. Della Volpe argues that the reconstruction of the Hegelian dialectic effects a transition from “a priori assertions to experimental forecasts”. Lucio Colletti ( 科莱蒂, 1924–2001) was one of the most important Italian philosophers. Like his teacher, Galvano Della Volpe, Coletti was well-known as a critic of Hegelian idealism Lucio Colletti ( 科莱蒂, 1924–2001) was one of the most important Italian philosophers. Like his teacher, Galvano Della Volpe, Coletti was well-known as a critic of Hegelian idealism ItalianGalvano Della VolpeHegelian idealism ItalianGalvano Della VolpeHegelian idealism and, unlike his teacher, he also became a noted and, unlike his teacher, he also became a noted critic of Marxism. Colletti thinks Marx's true critic of Marxism. Colletti thinks Marx's trueMarxism philosophical ancestor was Kant. philosophical ancestor was Kant. Galvano Della Volpe Lucio Colletti Galvano Della Volpe Lucio Colletti

4. Structural Marxism was an approach to Marxist philosophy based on structuralism, primarily associated with the work of the French philosopher Louis Althusser. It was influential in France during the 1960s and 1970s, and also came to influence outside of France during the 1970s. Other proponents of structural Marxism were the sociologist Nicos Poulantzas and the anthropologist Maurice Godelier. 4. Structural Marxism was an approach to Marxist philosophy based on structuralism, primarily associated with the work of the French philosopher Louis Althusser. It was influential in France during the 1960s and 1970s, and also came to influence outside of France during the 1970s. Other proponents of structural Marxism were the sociologist Nicos Poulantzas and the anthropologist Maurice Godelier.Marxist philosophystructuralismsociologistNicos PoulantzasanthropologistMaurice GodelierMarxist philosophystructuralismsociologistNicos PoulantzasanthropologistMaurice Godelier Structuralists view the state in a capitalist mode of production as taking a specifically capitalist form because the state reproduces the logic of capitalist structure in its economic, legal, and political institutions. Structuralists would thus argue that the state and its institutions have a certain degree of independence from specific elites in the ruling or capitalist class. The institutions of the state function in the long-term interests of capital and capitalism, rather than in the short term interests of members of the capitalist class. Structuralists view the state in a capitalist mode of production as taking a specifically capitalist form because the state reproduces the logic of capitalist structure in its economic, legal, and political institutions. Structuralists would thus argue that the state and its institutions have a certain degree of independence from specific elites in the ruling or capitalist class. The institutions of the state function in the long-term interests of capital and capitalism, rather than in the short term interests of members of the capitalist class. Louis Althusser (1918–1990) was a French Marxist philosopher. Louis Althusser (1918–1990) was a French Marxist philosopher.Marxist philosopherMarxist philosopher Nicos Poulantzas (1936–1979) was a Greek Marxist political sociologist. Nicos Poulantzas (1936–1979) was a Greek Marxist political sociologist.GreekMarxistpolitical sociologistGreekMarxistpolitical sociologist Analytical Marxism refers to a style of thinking about Marxism that was prominent amongst English-speaking philosophers and social scientists during the 1980s. The most prominent members of the group were G. A. Cohen, John Roemer. Analytical Marxism refers to a style of thinking about Marxism that was prominent amongst English-speaking philosophers and social scientists during the 1980s. The most prominent members of the group were G. A. Cohen, John Roemer.MarxismG. A. CohenJohn RoemerMarxismG. A. CohenJohn Roemer

Analytical Marxism: Gerald Cohen (1941–2009) was an Canadian Marxist political philosopher. Known as a proponent of Analytical Marxism and a founding member of the September Group, Cohen’s 1978 work Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defense defends an old-fashioned interpretation of Marx's historical materialism often referred to as ‘economic determinism’ or ‘technological determinism’ by its critics. In Self-Ownership, Freedom, and Equality, Cohen offers an extensive moral argument in favor of socialism. Analytical Marxism: Gerald Cohen (1941–2009) was an Canadian Marxist political philosopher. Known as a proponent of Analytical Marxism and a founding member of the September Group, Cohen’s 1978 work Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defense defends an old-fashioned interpretation of Marx's historical materialism often referred to as ‘economic determinism’ or ‘technological determinism’ by its critics. In Self-Ownership, Freedom, and Equality, Cohen offers an extensive moral argument in favor of socialism.Marxistpolitical philosopher Analytical MarxismSeptember GroupMarx'shistorical materialismeconomic determinismtechnological determinismsocialismMarxistpolitical philosopher Analytical MarxismSeptember GroupMarx'shistorical materialismeconomic determinismtechnological determinismsocialism John E. Roemer ( 罗默 ) is an American economist and political scientist, a Professor of Political Science and Economics at Yale University. Roemer is famous for his work in the fields of economic philosophy and distributive justice. In recent years he has focused his attention on the topic of equal opportunity. Previously Roemer was part of the analytical Marxism school of thought. His earlier books indicate his strong interest in leftist economic philosophy, and his emphasis on the importance of providing game-theoretic and microeconomic foundations for Marxist theory. John E. Roemer ( 罗默 ) is an American economist and political scientist, a Professor of Political Science and Economics at Yale University. Roemer is famous for his work in the fields of economic philosophy and distributive justice. In recent years he has focused his attention on the topic of equal opportunity. Previously Roemer was part of the analytical Marxism school of thought. His earlier books indicate his strong interest in leftist economic philosophy, and his emphasis on the importance of providing game-theoretic and microeconomic foundations for Marxist theory.economistpolitical scientisteconomic philosophydistributive justiceequal opportunityanalytical Marxismgame-theoretic microeconomiceconomistpolitical scientisteconomic philosophydistributive justiceequal opportunityanalytical Marxismgame-theoretic microeconomic The September Group of academics is so called because of their biennial September meetings to discuss common interests. The September Group of academics is so called because of their biennial September meetings to discuss common interests.September GroupSeptember Group

III. Postmodernism is used in critical theory to refer to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, journalism and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Largely influenced by the Western European disillusionment induced by World War II, postmodernism refers to a cultural, intellectual, or artistic state lacking a clear central hierarchy or organizing principle and embodying extreme complexity, contradiction, ambiguity, diversity, interconnectedness or interreferentiality, in a way that is often indistinguishable from a parody ( 拙劣模仿 ) of itself. III. Postmodernism is used in critical theory to refer to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, journalism and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Largely influenced by the Western European disillusionment induced by World War II, postmodernism refers to a cultural, intellectual, or artistic state lacking a clear central hierarchy or organizing principle and embodying extreme complexity, contradiction, ambiguity, diversity, interconnectedness or interreferentiality, in a way that is often indistinguishable from a parody ( 拙劣模仿 ) of itself.critical theoryliteraturedramaarchitecturecinema journalismdesignhistorylawculturereligionWorld War II parodycritical theoryliteraturedramaarchitecturecinema journalismdesignhistorylawculturereligionWorld War II parody Michel Foucault (1926–1984) was a French philosopher, sociologist and historian. The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969): Statements depend on the conditions in which they emerge and exist within a field of discourse; the meaning of a statement is reliant on the succession of statements that precede and follow it. The Order of Things (1966): All periods of history have possessed specific underlying conditions of truth that constituted what was acceptable. He argues that these conditions have changed over time, in major and relatively sudden shifts. It is here Foucault’s infamous claims that “man is only a recent invention” and that the “end of man” is at hand. Michel Foucault (1926–1984) was a French philosopher, sociologist and historian. The Archaeology of Knowledge (1969): Statements depend on the conditions in which they emerge and exist within a field of discourse; the meaning of a statement is reliant on the succession of statements that precede and follow it. The Order of Things (1966): All periods of history have possessed specific underlying conditions of truth that constituted what was acceptable. He argues that these conditions have changed over time, in major and relatively sudden shifts. It is here Foucault’s infamous claims that “man is only a recent invention” and that the “end of man” is at hand.French philosopher sociologisthistorianFrench philosopher sociologisthistorian

Jean-François Lyotard ( 让 · 弗朗索瓦 · 利奥塔,1924–1998) was a French philosopher and literary theorist. He is well-known for his articulation of postmodernism and the analysis of the impact of postmodernity. In his works, the term ‘language games’, denotes the multiplicity of communities of meaning, separate systems in which meanings are produced and rules for their circulation are created. Jean-François Lyotard ( 让 · 弗朗索瓦 · 利奥塔,1924–1998) was a French philosopher and literary theorist. He is well-known for his articulation of postmodernism and the analysis of the impact of postmodernity. In his works, the term ‘language games’, denotes the multiplicity of communities of meaning, separate systems in which meanings are produced and rules for their circulation are created. Frenchphilosopherliterary theoristpostmodernism postmodernity Frenchphilosopherliterary theoristpostmodernism postmodernity Jean Baudrillard ( 博德里拉,1929–2007) was a French theorist whose work combines philosophy, social theory, and an idiosyncratic cultural metaphysics. In The Consumer Society, he argues that in a totally commodified society where everything is a commodity, alienation is ubiquitous. Jean Baudrillard ( 博德里拉,1929–2007) was a French theorist whose work combines philosophy, social theory, and an idiosyncratic cultural metaphysics. In The Consumer Society, he argues that in a totally commodified society where everything is a commodity, alienation is ubiquitous. Gilles Deleuze Deleuze ( 德勒兹,1925–1995) was a French philosopher. In Capitalism and Schizophrenia, Deleuze and Guattari welcomes capitalism’s destruction of traditional social hierarchies, but inveighs ( 痛斥 ) against its homogenization of all values. Modern society still suppresses difference and alienates persons from what they can do. Gilles Deleuze Deleuze ( 德勒兹,1925–1995) was a French philosopher. In Capitalism and Schizophrenia, Deleuze and Guattari welcomes capitalism’s destruction of traditional social hierarchies, but inveighs ( 痛斥 ) against its homogenization of all values. Modern society still suppresses difference and alienates persons from what they can do.French philosopherCapitalism and SchizophreniaFrench philosopherCapitalism and Schizophrenia Pierre-Félix Guattari ( 加塔利,1930–1992) was a French militant, institutional psychotherapist and philosopher, a founder of both schizoanalysis and ecosophy ( 生态哲学 ). Guattari is best known for his intellectual collaborations with Gilles Deleuze, most notably Anti- Oedipus (1972) and A Thousand Plateaus (1980 ). Pierre-Félix Guattari ( 加塔利,1930–1992) was a French militant, institutional psychotherapist and philosopher, a founder of both schizoanalysis and ecosophy ( 生态哲学 ). Guattari is best known for his intellectual collaborations with Gilles Deleuze, most notably Anti- Oedipus (1972) and A Thousand Plateaus (1980 ).Frenchmilitantpsychotherapistphilosopher schizoanalysisecosophyGilles DeleuzeAnti- OedipusA Thousand PlateausFrenchmilitantpsychotherapistphilosopher schizoanalysisecosophyGilles DeleuzeAnti- OedipusA Thousand Plateaus

Section Two Neo-Marxism Nicos Poulantzas Louis Althusser Herbert Marcuse Jürgen Habermas Erich Fromm Henri Lefebvre Introduction: Neo-Marxism is a loose term for various 20th- century approaches that amend or extend Marxism, usually by incorporating elements from other intellectual traditions, such as: critical theory or psychoanalysis. Introduction: Neo-Marxism is a loose term for various 20th- century approaches that amend or extend Marxism, usually by incorporating elements from other intellectual traditions, such as: critical theory or psychoanalysis.Marxism critical theorypsychoanalysisMarxism critical theorypsychoanalysis As with many uses of the prefix neo-, many theorists and groups designated as neo-Marxist have attempted to supplement the perceived deficiencies of orthodox Marxism or dialectical materialism. As with many uses of the prefix neo-, many theorists and groups designated as neo-Marxist have attempted to supplement the perceived deficiencies of orthodox Marxism or dialectical materialism.neoorthodox Marxismdialectical materialismneoorthodox Marxismdialectical materialism Neo-Marxism comes under the broader heading of New Left thinking. Neo-Marxism is also used frequently to describe opposition to inequalities experienced by Lesser Developed Countries in a globalized world. Neo-Marxism comes under the broader heading of New Left thinking. Neo-Marxism is also used frequently to describe opposition to inequalities experienced by Lesser Developed Countries in a globalized world.New LeftNew Left In a sociological sense, neo-Marxism adds Max Weber’s broader understanding of social inequality, such as status and power, to Marxist philosophy. Strains of neo-Marxism include: critical theory, analytical Marxism and French structural Marxism. In a sociological sense, neo-Marxism adds Max Weber’s broader understanding of social inequality, such as status and power, to Marxist philosophy. Strains of neo-Marxism include: critical theory, analytical Marxism and French structural Marxism.sociologicalMax Webersocial inequalitystatuspower Marxist philosophycritical theory analytical Marxismstructural MarxismsociologicalMax Webersocial inequalitystatuspower Marxist philosophycritical theory analytical Marxismstructural Marxism

I. Class and state in the contemporary capitalist society: Nicos Poulantzas (1936–1979) was a Greek Marxist political sociologist. In the 1970s, Poulantzas was known, along with Louis Althusser, as a leading Structural Marxist and, while at first a Leninist, eventually became a proponent of eurocommunism. He is most well-known for his theoretical work on the state. He also made Marxist analysis of fascism and social class. He looked in particular to nationalism as a means to overcome the class divisions within capitalism. I. Class and state in the contemporary capitalist society: Nicos Poulantzas (1936–1979) was a Greek Marxist political sociologist. In the 1970s, Poulantzas was known, along with Louis Althusser, as a leading Structural Marxist and, while at first a Leninist, eventually became a proponent of eurocommunism. He is most well-known for his theoretical work on the state. He also made Marxist analysis of fascism and social class. He looked in particular to nationalism as a means to overcome the class divisions within capitalism.GreekMarxistpolitical sociologistLouis AlthusserStructural MarxistLeninisteurocommunismGreekMarxistpolitical sociologistLouis AlthusserStructural MarxistLeninisteurocommunism Borrowing from Antonio Gramsci’s notion of cultural hegemony, Poulantzas argued that repressing movements of the oppressed is not the sole function of the state. Rather state power must also obtain the consent of the oppressed. Poulantzas analyzed the role of what he termed the ‘new petty bourgeoisie’ in both consolidating the ruling classes hegemony and undermining the proletariat’s ability to organize itself. The fraction of the working class throws its lot in with the bourgeois whose fate it (wrongly) believes it shares. An example of this can be seen in a Poulantzas-influenced analysis of the New Deal: the American ruling class, by acceding to some of the demands of labor, helped cement an alliance between labor and a particular fraction of capital and the state. This was necessary for the continued existence of capitalism, for if the ruling class avoided making any concessions, it could have led to a socialist revolution. Borrowing from Antonio Gramsci’s notion of cultural hegemony, Poulantzas argued that repressing movements of the oppressed is not the sole function of the state. Rather state power must also obtain the consent of the oppressed. Poulantzas analyzed the role of what he termed the ‘new petty bourgeoisie’ in both consolidating the ruling classes hegemony and undermining the proletariat’s ability to organize itself. The fraction of the working class throws its lot in with the bourgeois whose fate it (wrongly) believes it shares. An example of this can be seen in a Poulantzas-influenced analysis of the New Deal: the American ruling class, by acceding to some of the demands of labor, helped cement an alliance between labor and a particular fraction of capital and the state. This was necessary for the continued existence of capitalism, for if the ruling class avoided making any concessions, it could have led to a socialist revolution.Antonio Gramscicultural hegemony New DealsocialistAntonio Gramscicultural hegemony New Dealsocialist

Louis Pierre Althusser (1918–1990) was a Algeria French Marxist philosopher. He was a lifelong member and sometimes strong critic of the French Communist Party. Althusser is commonly referred to as a Structural Marxist. Louis Pierre Althusser (1918–1990) was a Algeria French Marxist philosopher. He was a lifelong member and sometimes strong critic of the French Communist Party. Althusser is commonly referred to as a Structural Marxist. Marxist philosopherFrench Communist PartyStructural Marxist philosopherFrench Communist PartyStructural Marxist Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1970): “I shall say that the reproduction of labor power requires not only a reproduction of its skills, but also, at the same time, a reproduction of its submission to the rules of the established order, i.e. a reproduction of submission to the ruling ideology for the workers, and a reproduction of the ability to manipulate the ruling ideology correctly for the agents of exploitation and repression”. Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1970): “I shall say that the reproduction of labor power requires not only a reproduction of its skills, but also, at the same time, a reproduction of its submission to the rules of the established order, i.e. a reproduction of submission to the ruling ideology for the workers, and a reproduction of the ability to manipulate the ruling ideology correctly for the agents of exploitation and repression”. “In other words, the school (but also other State institutions like the Church, or other apparatuses like the Army) teaches ‘know-how’, but in forms which ensure subjection to the ruling ideology or the mastery of its ‘practice’, not to speak of the ‘professionals of ideology’ (Marx), must in one way or another be ‘steeped’ in this ideology in order to perform their tasks ‘conscientiously’ – the tasks of the exploited (the proletarians), of the exploiters (the capitalists), of the exploiters’ auxiliaries (the managers), or of the high priests of the ruling ideology (its ‘functionaries’), etc. ” “In other words, the school (but also other State institutions like the Church, or other apparatuses like the Army) teaches ‘know-how’, but in forms which ensure subjection to the ruling ideology or the mastery of its ‘practice’, not to speak of the ‘professionals of ideology’ (Marx), must in one way or another be ‘steeped’ in this ideology in order to perform their tasks ‘conscientiously’ – the tasks of the exploited (the proletarians), of the exploiters (the capitalists), of the exploiters’ auxiliaries (the managers), or of the high priests of the ruling ideology (its ‘functionaries’), etc. ”

Nicos Poulantzas’ State, Power, Socialism: In this, perhaps his most readable work, Poulanztas rejects the simple instrumentalist interpretation of the State in favor of a complex structuralist approach which views the state not as an instrument, but a CONTESTED FIELD. Poulantzas portrays a state that is rent through ( 断裂 ) with internal contradictions: which is itself a site of struggle. For Poulantzas, the class struggle IMPRINTS itself upon the state. As he argues, “the State bathes in struggles that continually submerge it.” Nicos Poulantzas’ State, Power, Socialism: In this, perhaps his most readable work, Poulanztas rejects the simple instrumentalist interpretation of the State in favor of a complex structuralist approach which views the state not as an instrument, but a CONTESTED FIELD. Poulantzas portrays a state that is rent through ( 断裂 ) with internal contradictions: which is itself a site of struggle. For Poulantzas, the class struggle IMPRINTS itself upon the state. As he argues, “the State bathes in struggles that continually submerge it.” II. Science, technology, culture and ideology of the contemporary capitalism II. Science, technology, culture and ideology of the contemporary capitalism Herbert Marcuse: One-Dimensional Man (1964) argues that “in a provocative form, this proposition reveals the political aspects of the prevailing technological rationality.... …The products indoctrinate and manipulate; they promote a false consciousness which is immune against its falsehood. And as these beneficial products become available to more individuals in more social classes, the indoctrination they carry ceases to be publicity; it becomes a way of life. … … Thus emerges a pattern of one-dimensional thought and behavior in which ideas, aspirations, and objectives that, by their content, transcend the established universe of discourse and action are either repelled or reduced to terms of this universe.” Herbert Marcuse: One-Dimensional Man (1964) argues that “in a provocative form, this proposition reveals the political aspects of the prevailing technological rationality.... …The products indoctrinate and manipulate; they promote a false consciousness which is immune against its falsehood. And as these beneficial products become available to more individuals in more social classes, the indoctrination they carry ceases to be publicity; it becomes a way of life. … … Thus emerges a pattern of one-dimensional thought and behavior in which ideas, aspirations, and objectives that, by their content, transcend the established universe of discourse and action are either repelled or reduced to terms of this universe.”

Herbert Marcuse argues that “advanced industrial society” created false needs, which integrated individuals into the existing system of production and consumption via mass media, advertising, industrial management, and contemporary modes of thought. This results in a “one-dimensional” universe of thought and behavior in which aptitude and ability for critical thought and oppositional behavior wither away. Herbert Marcuse argues that “advanced industrial society” created false needs, which integrated individuals into the existing system of production and consumption via mass media, advertising, industrial management, and contemporary modes of thought. This results in a “one-dimensional” universe of thought and behavior in which aptitude and ability for critical thought and oppositional behavior wither away. false needs false needs The system we live in claims to be democratic, but it is actually authoritarian in that the few individuals dictate our perceptions of freedom by only allowing us choices to buy for happiness. Consumers act irrationally by working more than they need, ignoring the psychologically destructive effects and the waste and environmental damage it causes. The system we live in claims to be democratic, but it is actually authoritarian in that the few individuals dictate our perceptions of freedom by only allowing us choices to buy for happiness. Consumers act irrationally by working more than they need, ignoring the psychologically destructive effects and the waste and environmental damage it causes. In their seminal 1945 essay, “The Culture Industry”, some Frankfurt school theorists use the Marxist idea of the alienation of labor to draw parallels to the condition of consumers in a capitalist society. In their seminal 1945 essay, “The Culture Industry”, some Frankfurt school theorists use the Marxist idea of the alienation of labor to draw parallels to the condition of consumers in a capitalist society. Jürgen Habermas (1929-) is a German sociologist and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and American pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his work on the concept of the public sphere. Habermas’ theoretical system is devoted to revealing the possibility of reason, emancipation, and rational-critical communication latent in modern institutions and in the human capacity to deliberate and pursue rational interests. Jürgen Habermas (1929-) is a German sociologist and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and American pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his work on the concept of the public sphere. Habermas’ theoretical system is devoted to revealing the possibility of reason, emancipation, and rational-critical communication latent in modern institutions and in the human capacity to deliberate and pursue rational interests.Germansociologistphilosophercritical theorypragmatismpublic sphereGermansociologistphilosophercritical theorypragmatismpublic sphere

Technological “ideology”: The legitimate function of technology in modernity has been most elaborately theorized (and critiqued) by the Frankfurt School as part of its more general critique of instrumental reason. According to this view, modernity technology has become a tool of the capitalist economy and the bureaucratic state; the discourse on technology fills a central ideological role in legitimizing this prevailing order. Progress is equated with technological advance, and the rationality and universality of technology substitutes for the divisive and ideological process of politics. Technological “ideology”: The legitimate function of technology in modernity has been most elaborately theorized (and critiqued) by the Frankfurt School as part of its more general critique of instrumental reason. According to this view, modernity technology has become a tool of the capitalist economy and the bureaucratic state; the discourse on technology fills a central ideological role in legitimizing this prevailing order. Progress is equated with technological advance, and the rationality and universality of technology substitutes for the divisive and ideological process of politics. Technology and science as “ideology”, Habermas (1970) : with the emergence of the Keynesian welfare state, the role of politics is reduced to finding the technical means to achieve goals (such as economic growth). Technology is ideological to the extent that political issues are treated as technical issues: tensions and contradictions are overcome by delimiting the scope of the political, and as a result the instrumental rationality of technical language colonizes the sphere of politics. Technology and science as “ideology”, Habermas (1970) : with the emergence of the Keynesian welfare state, the role of politics is reduced to finding the technical means to achieve goals (such as economic growth). Technology is ideological to the extent that political issues are treated as technical issues: tensions and contradictions are overcome by delimiting the scope of the political, and as a result the instrumental rationality of technical language colonizes the sphere of politics. III. Social Alienation and crisis of the contemporary capitalism: Erich Seligmann Fromm (1900–1980) was an internationally renowned German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with what became known as the Frankfurt School of critical theory. III. Social Alienation and crisis of the contemporary capitalism: Erich Seligmann Fromm (1900–1980) was an internationally renowned German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with what became known as the Frankfurt School of critical theory.Frankfurt Schoolcritical theoryFrankfurt Schoolcritical theory

The Sane Society ( 健全的社会 ) by Fromm: “Automatons ( 机器人 ) willingly follow without violence, can be led without leaders, and can make machines that operate as people, in their turn creating people acting as automatons. In short, they are people whose reason pines away while their sense increases, and thus create the dangerous situation that man is equipped with the greatest material power possible but without the wisdom to use it. This alienation and automation leads to increasing mental unhealthiness. …... In the nineteenth century the problem was that ‘God was dead’, in the 20th century man is dead.” The Sane Society ( 健全的社会 ) by Fromm: “Automatons ( 机器人 ) willingly follow without violence, can be led without leaders, and can make machines that operate as people, in their turn creating people acting as automatons. In short, they are people whose reason pines away while their sense increases, and thus create the dangerous situation that man is equipped with the greatest material power possible but without the wisdom to use it. This alienation and automation leads to increasing mental unhealthiness. …... In the nineteenth century the problem was that ‘God was dead’, in the 20th century man is dead.” What is the Having Mode? ( 占有还是生存 : 一个新社会的精神基础 ) “To acquire, to own, and to make a profit are the sacred and inalienable rights of the individual in the industrial society.... …The principle is: ‘Where and how my property was acquired or what I do with it is nobody’s business but my own; as long as I do not violate the law, my right is unrestricted and absolute.’” What is the Having Mode? ( 占有还是生存 : 一个新社会的精神基础 ) “To acquire, to own, and to make a profit are the sacred and inalienable rights of the individual in the industrial society.... …The principle is: ‘Where and how my property was acquired or what I do with it is nobody’s business but my own; as long as I do not violate the law, my right is unrestricted and absolute.’” Eros and Civilization ( 爱欲与文明 ) by Herbert Marcuse: “the irreconcilable conflict is not between work and Eros, but between alienated labor and Eros.” Sex is allowed for “the betters” (capitalists), and for workers only when not disturbing performance. A socialist society could change this by a non-repressive civilization based on “non-repressive sublimation”. Eros and Civilization ( 爱欲与文明 ) by Herbert Marcuse: “the irreconcilable conflict is not between work and Eros, but between alienated labor and Eros.” Sex is allowed for “the betters” (capitalists), and for workers only when not disturbing performance. A socialist society could change this by a non-repressive civilization based on “non-repressive sublimation”.

Legitimation Crisis by Habermas discusses about legitimacy crisis afflicting late capitalism, and argues that the traditional Marxist analysis of crisis tendencies in the capitalist system was outdated, given the relative success of the welfare-state compromise. He claimed instead that crisis tendencies generated in the economic sphere would be displaced, via state action, into the cultural sphere. This would in turn create problems of social integration, undermining many of the resources that the state requires for its ongoing management of the economy. In particular, it creates the possibility of a large-scale loss of legitimacy for government institutions. Legitimation Crisis by Habermas discusses about legitimacy crisis afflicting late capitalism, and argues that the traditional Marxist analysis of crisis tendencies in the capitalist system was outdated, given the relative success of the welfare-state compromise. He claimed instead that crisis tendencies generated in the economic sphere would be displaced, via state action, into the cultural sphere. This would in turn create problems of social integration, undermining many of the resources that the state requires for its ongoing management of the economy. In particular, it creates the possibility of a large-scale loss of legitimacy for government institutions. Economic crisis might occur when output declines and its distribution becomes increasingly unequal, so disproportionate that it raises questions about the fairness and viability of the system. In this way, the ideology supporting capitalism would come under question and cease generating loyalty from the people. Economic crisis might occur when output declines and its distribution becomes increasingly unequal, so disproportionate that it raises questions about the fairness and viability of the system. In this way, the ideology supporting capitalism would come under question and cease generating loyalty from the people. Communication and the Evolution of Society (1976) by Habermas is composed of a series of essays developing a distinctive account of moral consciousness and normative structures, reconstruction of Marx’ historical materialism understood as a theory of social evolution, and the question of legitimacy of the late capitalism, discussing about communication, socialization, social evolution, and the development of law and morality. Communication and the Evolution of Society (1976) by Habermas is composed of a series of essays developing a distinctive account of moral consciousness and normative structures, reconstruction of Marx’ historical materialism understood as a theory of social evolution, and the question of legitimacy of the late capitalism, discussing about communication, socialization, social evolution, and the development of law and morality.

IV. Ideal society and the road to liberation: by Marcuse (1969) written before the French student rebellion, is dedicated to the student militants. Clearly, Marcuse hoped that they might effect the revolution he deemed justifiable against the oppressiveness and aggressiveness of contemporary industrial society. He argued that the traditional conceptions of human freedom have been rendered obsolete by the development of advanced industrial society. He believes that collectively in society we have become irrational-rationales who define rationalism only as efficiency. Marcuse sees western society as an enslaving system which crushes its members into a life of bondage towards gain. IV. Ideal society and the road to liberation: An Essay on Liberation by Marcuse (1969) written before the French student rebellion, is dedicated to the student militants. Clearly, Marcuse hoped that they might effect the revolution he deemed justifiable against the oppressiveness and aggressiveness of contemporary industrial society. He argued that the traditional conceptions of human freedom have been rendered obsolete by the development of advanced industrial society. He believes that collectively in society we have become irrational-rationales who define rationalism only as efficiency. Marcuse sees western society as an enslaving system which crushes its members into a life of bondage towards gain. College campus uprisings, culminating in the revolt of French students in May 1968, rendered Marcuse open to attack. In July 1968 he disappeared from his home in California after reportedly receiving a threatening letter from the Ku Klux Klan. In October 1968 a campaign was launched to dislodge him from his teaching position. And in 1969 Pope Paul criticized his views on sex. College campus uprisings, culminating in the revolt of French students in May 1968, rendered Marcuse open to attack. In July 1968 he disappeared from his home in California after reportedly receiving a threatening letter from the Ku Klux Klan. In October 1968 a campaign was launched to dislodge him from his teaching position. And in 1969 Pope Paul criticized his views on sex. Fromm’s Marx's Concept of Man: http://www.marx.org/archive/fromm/works/1961/man/index.htm Revival of Marx’ humanism. “Marx is primarily concerned with the emancipation of man as an individual, the overcoming of alienation, the restoration of his capacity to relate himself fully to man and to nature ” Fromm’s Marx's Concept of Man: http://www.marx.org/archive/fromm/works/1961/man/index.htm Revival of Marx’ humanism. “Marx is primarily concerned with the emancipation of man as an individual, the overcoming of alienation, the restoration of his capacity to relate himself fully to man and to nature ” http://www.marx.org/archive/fromm/works/1961/man/index.htm

“It did not help matters that Marx Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts, his main philosophical work dealing with his concept of man, of alienation, of emancipation, etc., had not until now been translated into English”. But “Russian Communists appropriated Marx’s theory and tried to convince the world that their practice and theory follow his ideas”. “Independence and freedom, for Marx, are based on the act of self-creation.” “Socialism is the abolition of human self-alienation, the return of man as a real human being.” “It did not help matters that Marx Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts, his main philosophical work dealing with his concept of man, of alienation, of emancipation, etc., had not until now been translated into English”. But “Russian Communists appropriated Marx’s theory and tried to convince the world that their practice and theory follow his ideas”. “Independence and freedom, for Marx, are based on the act of self-creation.” “Socialism is the abolition of human self-alienation, the return of man as a real human being.” The Urban Revolution by Henri Lefebvre( 昂利 · 列斐伏尔 ): In contrast to the ideology of urbanism and its reliance on commoditization and bureaucratization-the capitalist logic of market and state-Lefebvre conceives of an urban utopia characterized by self-determination, individual creativity, and authentic social relationships. The Urban Revolution by Henri Lefebvre( 昂利 · 列斐伏尔 ): In contrast to the ideology of urbanism and its reliance on commoditization and bureaucratization-the capitalist logic of market and state-Lefebvre conceives of an urban utopia characterized by self-determination, individual creativity, and authentic social relationships. Counterrevolution and Revolt by Marcuse: The proletariat no longer exists as the negation of the capitalist system, but rather, as an absorbed part of it through commodity accumulation. Marcuse proclaims “While it is true that people must liberate themselves from their servitude, it is also true that they must first free themselves from what has been made of them in the society in which they live. This primary liberation cannot be 'spontaneous' because such spontaneity would only express the values and goals derived from the established system.” Counterrevolution and Revolt by Marcuse: The proletariat no longer exists as the negation of the capitalist system, but rather, as an absorbed part of it through commodity accumulation. Marcuse proclaims “While it is true that people must liberate themselves from their servitude, it is also true that they must first free themselves from what has been made of them in the society in which they live. This primary liberation cannot be 'spontaneous' because such spontaneity would only express the values and goals derived from the established system.”

The Theory of Communicative Action (1981) by Habermas is a thesis based on a concept developed by him, communicative reason, which is distinguished from the rationalist tradition in that it considers the site of rationality to be the structures of interpersonal linguistic communication rather than the structure of either the cosmos or the knowing subject. It challenges the Marxist focus on economics (or alienated labor) as the main or sole determining factor of oppression. Habermas argues that the key to liberation is rather to be found in language and communication between people. The Theory of Communicative Action (1981) by Habermas is a thesis based on a concept developed by him, communicative reason, which is distinguished from the rationalist tradition in that it considers the site of rationality to be the structures of interpersonal linguistic communication rather than the structure of either the cosmos or the knowing subject. It challenges the Marxist focus on economics (or alienated labor) as the main or sole determining factor of oppression. Habermas argues that the key to liberation is rather to be found in language and communication between people.communicative reasonrationalist traditionrationality communicationcosmoscommunicative reasonrationalist traditionrationality communicationcosmos Postmetaphysical thinking (1988) by Habermas puts forward that consciousness is not an original act of the ego, but an external force that encroaches inwardly and forms the ego within a set of responses to stimuli from the other, wherein the I through being referred to by another can gain knowledge of himself in seeing how a second actor organizes his interlocutory ( 对话的 ) demands. Postmetaphysical thinking (1988) by Habermas puts forward that consciousness is not an original act of the ego, but an external force that encroaches inwardly and forms the ego within a set of responses to stimuli from the other, wherein the I through being referred to by another can gain knowledge of himself in seeing how a second actor organizes his interlocutory ( 对话的 ) demands. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (1962, 1989) by Habermas describes the development of a bourgeois public sphere in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries as well as its subsequent decline, notable for “ transforming media studies into a hardheaded discipline.” The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (1962, 1989) by Habermas describes the development of a bourgeois public sphere in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries as well as its subsequent decline, notable for “ transforming media studies into a hardheaded discipline.”bourgeoispublic spherebourgeoispublic sphere The term “deliberative democracy” was originally coined by Joseph M. Bessette( 贝赛特, 美 ), in “Deliberative Democracy: The Majority Principle in Republican Government,” in 1980. The term “deliberative democracy” was originally coined by Joseph M. Bessette( 贝赛特, 美 ), in “Deliberative Democracy: The Majority Principle in Republican Government,” in 1980.

Section Three Postmodernism Fredric Jameson( 美 )Gilles Deleuze Michel Foucault Ray Liotta Jacques Derrida Pierre-Félix Guattari Largely influenced by the Western European disillusionment induced by World War II, postmodernism, synonymous in some contexts with postmodernity, refers to a cultural, intellectual, or artistic state lacking a clear central hierarchy or organizing principle and embodying extreme complexity, contradiction, ambiguity, diversity, interconnectedness or interreferentialit, in a way that is often indistinguishable from a parody of itself. It has given rise to charges of fraudulence. Postmodernity is a derivative referring to non-art aspects of history that were influenced by the new movement, namely developments in society, economy and culture since the 1960s.The term is closely linked with poststructuralism and with modernism, in terms of a rejection of its perceived bourgeois, elitist culture. Largely influenced by the Western European disillusionment induced by World War II, postmodernism, synonymous in some contexts with postmodernity, refers to a cultural, intellectual, or artistic state lacking a clear central hierarchy or organizing principle and embodying extreme complexity, contradiction, ambiguity, diversity, interconnectedness or interreferentialit, in a way that is often indistinguishable from a parody of itself. It has given rise to charges of fraudulence. Postmodernity is a derivative referring to non-art aspects of history that were influenced by the new movement, namely developments in society, economy and culture since the 1960s.The term is closely linked with poststructuralism and with modernism, in terms of a rejection of its perceived bourgeois, elitist culture.World War IIparodyPostmodernitypoststructuralismbourgeoisWorld War IIparodyPostmodernitypoststructuralismbourgeois

I. Fredric Jameson ( 詹姆逊,1934-) is an American literary critic and Marxist political theorist at Duke University. He is best known for his analysis of contemporary cultural trends—he once described postmodernism as the spatialization of culture under the pressure of organized capitalism. I. Fredric Jameson ( 詹姆逊,1934-) is an American literary critic and Marxist political theorist at Duke University. He is best known for his analysis of contemporary cultural trends—he once described postmodernism as the spatialization of culture under the pressure of organized capitalism. Marxist political theorist postmodernismspatialization Marxist political theorist postmodernismspatialization In his work Late Capitalism (1972), German Belgian Marxist economist Ernest Mandel ( 曼德尔 ) argues for three periods in the development of capitalism. First is market capitalism, which occurred from 1700 to 1850 and is characterized largely by the growth of industrial capital in domestic markets. Second is monopoly capitalism, which lasted until approximately 1960, and is characterized by the imperialistic international markets and colonial territories. Third is late capitalism, which displays such features as the multinational corporation, globalized markets and labor, mass consumption, and the space of liquid multinational flows of capital. In his work Late Capitalism (1972), German Belgian Marxist economist Ernest Mandel ( 曼德尔 ) argues for three periods in the development of capitalism. First is market capitalism, which occurred from 1700 to 1850 and is characterized largely by the growth of industrial capital in domestic markets. Second is monopoly capitalism, which lasted until approximately 1960, and is characterized by the imperialistic international markets and colonial territories. Third is late capitalism, which displays such features as the multinational corporation, globalized markets and labor, mass consumption, and the space of liquid multinational flows of capital. imperialisticcolonial territoriesmultinational corporationglobalized markets and labormass consumption imperialisticcolonial territoriesmultinational corporationglobalized markets and labormass consumption Postmodernism: The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1991) by Jameson: “Late-Capitalism” implies multinational capitalism (domination by multinational corporations, the decline of national sovereignty), media-capitalism, the modern world system and postindustrial society. Jameson refers to this cultural recycling as historicism (the random cannibalization ( 拼修 ) of all styles of the past.) Postmodernism: The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (1991) by Jameson: “Late-Capitalism” implies multinational capitalism (domination by multinational corporations, the decline of national sovereignty), media-capitalism, the modern world system and postindustrial society. Jameson refers to this cultural recycling as historicism (the random cannibalization ( 拼修 ) of all styles of the past.)Postmodernism: The Cultural Logic of Late CapitalismPostmodernism: The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism

Postmodernism is a dominant cultural form of the late capitalist age, which is differentiated from other cultural forms by its emphasis on fragmentation. Fragmentation of the subject replaces the alienation of the subject which characterized modernism. Postmodernist works are often characterized by a lack of depth, flatness, hyperspace( 超空间、多维空间 ), decentered communicational network. Postmodernism is a dominant cultural form of the late capitalist age, which is differentiated from other cultural forms by its emphasis on fragmentation. Fragmentation of the subject replaces the alienation of the subject which characterized modernism. Postmodernist works are often characterized by a lack of depth, flatness, hyperspace( 超空间、多维空间 ), decentered communicational network. II. Criticism against modernism and the ruling of power: 1. Definition of modernity: Modernity refers to a post-traditional, post- medieval historical period, marked in particular by the rise of industrialism, capitalism, secularization, the nation-state, and its forms of surveillance. The term is related to the modern era and modernism. The term may refer to a condition associated with cultural and intellectual movements of a period from 1436 to 1789, and extending to the 1970s. The American and French Revolutions led to the formation of the first modern republic, the short-lived Republic of Corsica （科西嘉岛）. Large-scale social integration involves: Increased movement of goods, capital, people, and information, and increased influence that reaches beyond a local area ； Increased formalization and standardization of many aspects of the society in general ； Increased specialization of different segments of society, and interdependency among areas. II. Criticism against modernism and the ruling of power: 1. Definition of modernity: Modernity refers to a post-traditional, post- medieval historical period, marked in particular by the rise of industrialism, capitalism, secularization, the nation-state, and its forms of surveillance. The term is related to the modern era and modernism. The term may refer to a condition associated with cultural and intellectual movements of a period from 1436 to 1789, and extending to the 1970s. The American and French Revolutions led to the formation of the first modern republic, the short-lived Republic of Corsica （科西嘉岛）. Large-scale social integration involves: Increased movement of goods, capital, people, and information, and increased influence that reaches beyond a local area ； Increased formalization and standardization of many aspects of the society in general ； Increased specialization of different segments of society, and interdependency among areas. industrialismcapitalismsecularizationnation-statemodern eramodernismAmericanFrench RevolutionsRepublic of Corsica industrialismcapitalismsecularizationnation-statemodern eramodernismAmericanFrench RevolutionsRepublic of Corsica

Michel Foucault (1926–1984), was a French philosopher, sociologist and historian. He held a chair at the Collège de France with the title “History of Systems of Thought”, and also taught at the University at Buffalo and the University of California, Berkeley. Foucault is best known for his critical studies of social institutions, most notably psychiatry, medicine, the human sciences, and the prison system, as well as for his work on the history of human sexuality. His work on power, and the relationships among power, knowledge, and discourse has been widely discussed. Foucault is particularly influenced by the work of Nietzsche. Michel Foucault (1926–1984), was a French philosopher, sociologist and historian. He held a chair at the Collège de France with the title “History of Systems of Thought”, and also taught at the University at Buffalo and the University of California, Berkeley. Foucault is best known for his critical studies of social institutions, most notably psychiatry, medicine, the human sciences, and the prison system, as well as for his work on the history of human sexuality. His work on power, and the relationships among power, knowledge, and discourse has been widely discussed. Foucault is particularly influenced by the work of Nietzsche.French philosopher sociologisthistorianCollège de France University at BuffaloUniversity of California, Berkeleycritical studiessocial institutionspsychiatrymedicinehuman sciencesprisonhistory of human sexualitypowerNietzscheFrench philosopher sociologisthistorianCollège de France University at BuffaloUniversity of California, Berkeleycritical studiessocial institutionspsychiatrymedicinehuman sciencesprisonhistory of human sexualitypowerNietzsche Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1975,1977) is of snapshots of two contrasting types of Foucault’s “Technologies of Punishment”, i.e., “Monarchical Punishment”, brutal public displays of executions and torture, and “Disciplinary Punishment”, giving “professionals” (psychologists, programme facilitators, parole officers, etc.) power over the prisoner, most notably in that the prisoner’s length of stay depends on the professionals’ judgment. Foucault also compares modern society with Jeremy Bentham's “Panopticon” design for prisons: in the Panopticon, a single guard can watch over many prisoners while the guard remains unseen. The dark dungeon of pre-modernity has been replaced with the bright modern prison, but Foucault cautions that “visibility is a trap”. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1975,1977) is of snapshots of two contrasting types of Foucault’s “Technologies of Punishment”, i.e., “Monarchical Punishment”, brutal public displays of executions and torture, and “Disciplinary Punishment”, giving “professionals” (psychologists, programme facilitators, parole officers, etc.) power over the prisoner, most notably in that the prisoner’s length of stay depends on the professionals’ judgment. Foucault also compares modern society with Jeremy Bentham's “Panopticon” design for prisons: in the Panopticon, a single guard can watch over many prisoners while the guard remains unseen. The dark dungeon of pre-modernity has been replaced with the bright modern prison, but Foucault cautions that “visibility is a trap”.executionstortureJeremy BenthamPanopticonexecutionstortureJeremy BenthamPanopticon

It is through this visibility, Foucault writes, that modern society exercises its controlling systems of power and knowledge (hyphenated as “power-knowledge”). Increasing visibility leads to power located on an increasingly individualized level, shown by the possibility for institutions to track individuals throughout their lives. Foucault suggests that a “carceral continuum” runs through modern society, from the maximum security prison, through secure accommodation, probation, social workers, police, and teachers, to our everyday working and domestic lives. All are connected by the (witting or unwitting) supervision (surveillance, application of norms of acceptable behavior) of some humans by others. It is through this visibility, Foucault writes, that modern society exercises its controlling systems of power and knowledge (hyphenated as “power-knowledge”). Increasing visibility leads to power located on an increasingly individualized level, shown by the possibility for institutions to track individuals throughout their lives. Foucault suggests that a “carceral continuum” runs through modern society, from the maximum security prison, through secure accommodation, probation, social workers, police, and teachers, to our everyday working and domestic lives. All are connected by the (witting or unwitting) supervision (surveillance, application of norms of acceptable behavior) of some humans by others.power-knowledge Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995) was a French philosopher of the late 20th century. He wrote many influential works on philosophy, literature, film, and fine art. His most popular books were the two volumes of Capitalism and Schizophrenia: Anti-Oedipus (1972) and A Thousand Plateaus (1980), both co-written with Félix Guattari. His books Difference and Repetition (1968) and The Logic of Sense (1969) led Michel Foucault to declare that “one day, perhaps, this century will be called Deleuzian.” Gilles Deleuze (1925–1995) was a French philosopher of the late 20th century. He wrote many influential works on philosophy, literature, film, and fine art. His most popular books were the two volumes of Capitalism and Schizophrenia: Anti-Oedipus (1972) and A Thousand Plateaus (1980), both co-written with Félix Guattari. His books Difference and Repetition (1968) and The Logic of Sense (1969) led Michel Foucault to declare that “one day, perhaps, this century will be called Deleuzian.”Capitalism and SchizophreniaAnti-OedipusA Thousand PlateausFélix GuattariDifference and RepetitionThe Logic of SenseMichel FoucaultCapitalism and SchizophreniaAnti-OedipusA Thousand PlateausFélix GuattariDifference and RepetitionThe Logic of SenseMichel Foucault

Pierre-Félix Guattari (1930–1992) was a French militant, institutional psychotherapist and philosopher, a founder of both schizoanalysis and ecosophy. Pierre-Félix Guattari (1930–1992) was a French militant, institutional psychotherapist and philosopher, a founder of both schizoanalysis and ecosophy. schizoanalysisecosophy schizoanalysisecosophy A Thousand Plateaus (1986) is the second book in the Capitalism and Schizophrenia ( 精神分裂症 ) volume, the first being Anti-Oedipus. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari used the term “rhizome( 根茎 )” to describe theory and research that allows for multiple, non-hierarchical entry and exit points in data representation and interpretation. They opposed it to an arborescent ( 树木状 ) conception of knowledge, which worked with dualist categories and binary choices. A rhizome works with horizontal and trans-species connections, while an arborescent model works with vertical and linear connections. Their use of the “orchid ( 兰花 ) and the wasp” was taken from the biological concept of mutualism, in which two different species interact together to form a multiplicity. Horizontal gene transfer would also be a good illustration. A Thousand Plateaus (1986) is the second book in the Capitalism and Schizophrenia ( 精神分裂症 ) volume, the first being Anti-Oedipus. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari used the term “rhizome( 根茎 )” to describe theory and research that allows for multiple, non-hierarchical entry and exit points in data representation and interpretation. They opposed it to an arborescent ( 树木状 ) conception of knowledge, which worked with dualist categories and binary choices. A rhizome works with horizontal and trans-species connections, while an arborescent model works with vertical and linear connections. Their use of the “orchid ( 兰花 ) and the wasp” was taken from the biological concept of mutualism, in which two different species interact together to form a multiplicity. Horizontal gene transfer would also be a good illustration.Capitalism and SchizophreniaAnti-Oedipus Gilles DeleuzeFélix Guattariarborescentdualist mutualism multiplicityHorizontal gene transferCapitalism and SchizophreniaAnti-Oedipus Gilles DeleuzeFélix Guattariarborescentdualist mutualism multiplicityHorizontal gene transfer Rhizome theory has also attracted interest in the educational field, as a means of framing knowledge creation and validation in the online era. Expert-centered pedagogical planning and publishing cycle is criticized, while it is considered that in the rhizomatic model, knowledge is negotiated and the learning experience is a social as well as a personal knowledge creation process with mutable goals and constantly negotiated premises. Rhizome theory has also attracted interest in the educational field, as a means of framing knowledge creation and validation in the online era. Expert-centered pedagogical planning and publishing cycle is criticized, while it is considered that in the rhizomatic model, knowledge is negotiated and the learning experience is a social as well as a personal knowledge creation process with mutable goals and constantly negotiated premises.

Anti-Œdipus (1972): Michel Foucault writes in the introduction, “...Anti-Œdipus is an introduction to the nonfascist life.” It thinks that desire is a productive force. “It is not a theater, but a factory”. Anti-Œdipus (1972): Michel Foucault writes in the introduction, “...Anti-Œdipus is an introduction to the nonfascist life.” It thinks that desire is a productive force. “It is not a theater, but a factory”.Michel FoucaultnonfascistproductiveMichel Foucaultnonfascistproductive Deleuze and Guattari describe the productive nature of desire as a kind of Desiring-Machine that functions as a circuit breaker in a larger “circuit” of various other machines to which it is connected. And the Desiring-Machine is at the same time also producing a flow of desire from itself. Thus, they opposed Freud’s concept of sublimation, which led to a necessary dualism between desiring machines and social production. Their book is hence both a critique of Freud and Lacan's psychoanalysis, and also of Freudo-Marxism. Deleuze and Guattari’s concept of sexuality is not limited to the connectivity of just male and female gender roles, but by the multi-gendered flows that a “hundred thousand” Desiring-Machines create within their connected universe. Furthermore, they argue that schizophrenia is an extreme mental state co-existent with the capitalist system itself and capitalism keeps enforcing neurosis ( 神经症 ) as a way of maintaining normality. Deleuze and Guattari describe the productive nature of desire as a kind of Desiring-Machine that functions as a circuit breaker in a larger “circuit” of various other machines to which it is connected. And the Desiring-Machine is at the same time also producing a flow of desire from itself. Thus, they opposed Freud’s concept of sublimation, which led to a necessary dualism between desiring machines and social production. Their book is hence both a critique of Freud and Lacan's psychoanalysis, and also of Freudo-Marxism. Deleuze and Guattari’s concept of sexuality is not limited to the connectivity of just male and female gender roles, but by the multi-gendered flows that a “hundred thousand” Desiring-Machines create within their connected universe. Furthermore, they argue that schizophrenia is an extreme mental state co-existent with the capitalist system itself and capitalism keeps enforcing neurosis ( 神经症 ) as a way of maintaining normality.circuit breakersublimationdualismFreudLacanFreudo-Marxismschizophrenianeurosisnormalitycircuit breakersublimationdualismFreudLacanFreudo-Marxismschizophrenianeurosisnormality Difference and Repetition (1968) forwards a critique of represention. In the book, Deleuze develops the concepts of difference in itself and repetition for itself, that is concepts of difference and repetition that are prior to identity. Difference and Repetition (1968) forwards a critique of represention. In the book, Deleuze develops the concepts of difference in itself and repetition for itself, that is concepts of difference and repetition that are prior to identity.

Chapter Eight Feminism Chapter Eight Feminism The term feminism became popular in the 1970s, referring to a political, cultural or economic movement. It involves political and sociological theories and philosophies concerned with gender issues and movements that campaigns for women‘s rights and interests. The history of feminism can be divided into three waves of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the 1960s and 1970s, and that extends from the 1990s to the present. Feminist theory includes feminist geography, feminist history and feminist literary criticism. The term feminism became popular in the 1970s, referring to a political, cultural or economic movement. It involves political and sociological theories and philosophies concerned with gender issues and movements that campaigns for women‘s rights and interests. The history of feminism can be divided into three waves of the 19th and early 20th centuries, the 1960s and 1970s, and that extends from the 1990s to the present. Feminist theory includes feminist geography, feminist history and feminist literary criticism.women‘s rightsFeminist theorywomen‘s rightsFeminist theory Feminist activists have advocated women’s legal rights concerning contract, property, voting, bodily integrity and autonomy, abortion, reproduction, domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape, workplace rights (maternity leave and equal pay), and criticized misogyny( 厌女症 ). Most feminist movements and theories had leaders who were predominantly middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America. However, women of other races have proposed “Post-colonial” and “Third World” feminisms. This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the Civil Rights movement and the collapse of European colonialism. Feminist activists have advocated women’s legal rights concerning contract, property, voting, bodily integrity and autonomy, abortion, reproduction, domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape, workplace rights (maternity leave and equal pay), and criticized misogyny( 厌女症 ). Most feminist movements and theories had leaders who were predominantly middle-class white women from Western Europe and North America. However, women of other races have proposed “Post-colonial” and “Third World” feminisms. This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the Civil Rights movement and the collapse of European colonialism. misogyny

Section One Feminist Movement and Feminism Mary Wollstonecraft ( 沃斯通克拉夫特,1797) John Stuart Mill 波娃 Janet Biehl, US ecofeminist Angela Davis( 安吉拉 · 戴维丝 ), black I. Progress of the feminist movement: 1. French Revolution and the early feminists: Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen adopted in August 1789 addressed neither the status of women nor slavery. So French woman Olympe de Gouge ( 古兹 ) wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Citizens in1791, and was arrested and sent to the guillotine in 1793. In 1793, the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women lasted only six months before it was shut down by authorities. Until 1944, French citizenship was limited to males. I. Progress of the feminist movement: 1. French Revolution and the early feminists: Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen adopted in August 1789 addressed neither the status of women nor slavery. So French woman Olympe de Gouge ( 古兹 ) wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Citizens in1791, and was arrested and sent to the guillotine in 1793. In 1793, the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women lasted only six months before it was shut down by authorities. Until 1944, French citizenship was limited to males.Olympe de Gouge ( ) Declaration of the Rights of Women and the CitizensOlympe de Gouge ( ) Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Citizens Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) was a British writer, philosopher, and feminist. She wrote about French Revolution, and is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings. She married the anachist philosopher William Godwin. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) was a British writer, philosopher, and feminist. She wrote about French Revolution, and is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings. She married the anachist philosopher William Godwin.feministA Vindication of the Rights of WomanWilliam GodwinfeministA Vindication of the Rights of WomanWilliam Godwin

2. The first wave of feminist movement was started in the late 19th century and lasted until the early 20th century. The main focus of this movement was on de jure inequalities, or officially mandated inequalities. Most people consider the first wave to have ended when the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was passed, granting women the right to vote. This major victory of the movement also included reforms in education, in the workplace and professions, and in healthcare. John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), English philosopher, political theorist, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential Classical liberal thinker whose works on liberty justified freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. He was an exponent of utilitarianism. 2. The first wave of feminist movement was started in the late 19th century and lasted until the early 20th century. The main focus of this movement was on de jure inequalities, or officially mandated inequalities. Most people consider the first wave to have ended when the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was passed, granting women the right to vote. This major victory of the movement also included reforms in education, in the workplace and professions, and in healthcare. John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), English philosopher, political theorist, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential Classical liberal thinker whose works on liberty justified freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. He was an exponent of utilitarianism.Englishphilosopherpolitical theoristpolitical economistMember of ParliamentClassical liberallibertyutilitarianismEnglishphilosopherpolitical theoristpolitical economistMember of ParliamentClassical liberallibertyutilitarianism Personal Liberty: As long as we do not harm others, we should be able to express our own natures, and experiment with our lives. Liberty for women as well as men: All of Mill’s arguments apply to both men and women. Women can participate in determining their own affairs too. Personal Liberty: As long as we do not harm others, we should be able to express our own natures, and experiment with our lives. Liberty for women as well as men: All of Mill’s arguments apply to both men and women. Women can participate in determining their own affairs too. Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) was a French writer, existentialist philosopher, feminist, and social theorist. Her 1949 treatise The Second Sex, a detailed analysis of women’s oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism. Simone de Beauvoir (1908–1986) was a French writer, existentialist philosopher, feminist, and social theorist. Her 1949 treatise The Second Sex, a detailed analysis of women’s oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism.The Second SexfeminismThe Second Sexfeminism

3. Second wave of feminist movement began in the 1960s and continued into the 90s. It unfolded in the context of the anti-war and civil rights movements and the growing self-consciousness of minority groups around the world. In this phase, sexuality and reproductive rights were dominant issues, and much of the movement’s energy was focused on passing the Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution guaranteeing social equality regardless of sex in America. 3. Second wave of feminist movement began in the 1960s and continued into the 90s. It unfolded in the context of the anti-war and civil rights movements and the growing self-consciousness of minority groups around the world. In this phase, sexuality and reproductive rights were dominant issues, and much of the movement’s energy was focused on passing the Equal Rights Amendment to the Constitution guaranteeing social equality regardless of sex in America. In America, feminists formed women-only organizations (such as NOW) and “consciousness raising” groups. In publications like “The BITCH Manifesto” and “Sisterhood is Powerful”, feminists advocated for their place in the sun, claiming “Women’s struggle is class struggle”, and coined phrases like “the personal is political” and “identity politics”. The second wave was increasingly theoretical, based on a fusion of neo-Marxism and psycho-analytical theory, and associated the subjugation of women with critiques of patriarchy and capitalism. Sex and gender were differentiated—the former being biological, and the later a social construct. In America, feminists formed women-only organizations (such as NOW) and “consciousness raising” groups. In publications like “The BITCH Manifesto” and “Sisterhood is Powerful”, feminists advocated for their place in the sun, claiming “Women’s struggle is class struggle”, and coined phrases like “the personal is political” and “identity politics”. The second wave was increasingly theoretical, based on a fusion of neo-Marxism and psycho-analytical theory, and associated the subjugation of women with critiques of patriarchy and capitalism. Sex and gender were differentiated—the former being biological, and the later a social construct.

4. The third phase of feminism began in the mid-1990s and is informed by post-colonial and post-modern thinking. In this phase many constructs have been destabilized, including the notions of “universal womanhood”, body, gender, sexuality and heteronormativity ( 异性恋规范 ).The re-adoption of the lip-stick, high-heals, and cleavage proudly exposed by low cut necklines had been identified with male oppression in the first two phases. E-zines have provided “cybergrrls” and “netgrrls” of women-only space. 4. The third phase of feminism began in the mid-1990s and is informed by post-colonial and post-modern thinking. In this phase many constructs have been destabilized, including the notions of “universal womanhood”, body, gender, sexuality and heteronormativity ( 异性恋规范 ).The re-adoption of the lip-stick, high-heals, and cleavage proudly exposed by low cut necklines had been identified with male oppression in the first two phases. E-zines have provided “cybergrrls” and “netgrrls” of women-only space. II. Basic characteristics of feminism: 1. Ideological pluralism: Feminism is influenced by liberalism, social democracy, existentialism, psychoanalysis, and postmodernism, and has formed various schools including Socialist and Marxist feminisms, radical feminism, liberal feminism, black feminism, postcolonial feminism and third-world feminism, multiracial feminism, libertarian feminism, standpoint feminism, post-structural and postmodern feminism, ecofeminism. It is manifest in a variety of disciplines such as feminist geography, feminist history and feminist literary criticism. II. Basic characteristics of feminism: 1. Ideological pluralism: Feminism is influenced by liberalism, social democracy, existentialism, psychoanalysis, and postmodernism, and has formed various schools including Socialist and Marxist feminisms, radical feminism, liberal feminism, black feminism, postcolonial feminism and third-world feminism, multiracial feminism, libertarian feminism, standpoint feminism, post-structural and postmodern feminism, ecofeminism. It is manifest in a variety of disciplines such as feminist geography, feminist history and feminist literary criticism. 2. Compared with other political theories, feminism is more arbitrary, with more emotional unbosoming and less reasonable thinking. 2. Compared with other political theories, feminism is more arbitrary, with more emotional unbosoming and less reasonable thinking. 3. Feminist viewpoints appear moderate and gentle, resorting to violence is rare. 3. Feminist viewpoints appear moderate and gentle, resorting to violence is rare.

Section Two Liberal Feminism Janet Radcliffe Richards( 理查兹 ) Sarah Fuller ( 富勒 ) Betty Friedan ( 弗里丹 ) Gloria Steinem( 斯蒂奈姆 )Susan Okin ( 欧金 ) Elizabeth Stanton ( 斯坦顿 ) Introduction: Liberal feminism asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform. It is an individualistic form of feminism and theory, which focuses on women’s ability to show and maintain their equality through their own choices. Liberal feminism tends to have a neutral vision towards different gender; it requires women to mold themselves to fit a citizenship. Issues important to liberal feminists include reproduction and abortion, sexual harassment, voting, education, fair compensation, childcare, health care, and sexual and domestic violence. Introduction: Liberal feminism asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform. It is an individualistic form of feminism and theory, which focuses on women’s ability to show and maintain their equality through their own choices. Liberal feminism tends to have a neutral vision towards different gender; it requires women to mold themselves to fit a citizenship. Issues important to liberal feminists include reproduction and abortion, sexual harassment, voting, education, fair compensation, childcare, health care, and sexual and domestic violence.

I. Legal case: Support for the ERA: In 1923, three years after American women won the right to vote, the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which was intended to guarantee that equal rights under any federal, state, or local law could not be denied on account of sex, was introduced in Congress by Senator Curtis and Representative Anthony, both Republicans. It was authored by Alice Paul, head of the National Women's Party. But it was buried in committee in both Houses of Congress. In 1946, it was narrowly defeated by the full Senate, 38-35. In February 1970, 20 NOW leaders disrupted the hearings of the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments, demanding the ERA be heard by the full Congress. I. Legal case: Support for the ERA: In 1923, three years after American women won the right to vote, the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which was intended to guarantee that equal rights under any federal, state, or local law could not be denied on account of sex, was introduced in Congress by Senator Curtis and Representative Anthony, both Republicans. It was authored by Alice Paul, head of the National Women's Party. But it was buried in committee in both Houses of Congress. In 1946, it was narrowly defeated by the full Senate, 38-35. In February 1970, 20 NOW leaders disrupted the hearings of the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional Amendments, demanding the ERA be heard by the full Congress.Equal Rights Amendmentequal rightsAlice PaulNational Women's PartyEqual Rights Amendmentequal rightsAlice PaulNational Women's Party Representative Martha W. Griffiths of Michigan, achieved success on Capitol Hill with her House Joint Resolution No. 208, which was adopted by the House on October 12, 1971, with a vote of 354 yeas, 24 nays and 51 not voting. Griffiths’ joint resolution was then adopted by the Senate on March 22, 1972, with a vote of 84 yeas, 8 nays and 7 not voting. With that, the ERA was finally presented by the 92nd Congress to the state legislatures, with a seven-year deadline for ratification by the required three-quarters of the legislatures. President Richard Nixon immediately endorsed the ERA’s approval. But it was stopped three states short of ratification before its June 30, 1982 deadline. Representative Martha W. Griffiths of Michigan, achieved success on Capitol Hill with her House Joint Resolution No. 208, which was adopted by the House on October 12, 1971, with a vote of 354 yeas, 24 nays and 51 not voting. Griffiths’ joint resolution was then adopted by the Senate on March 22, 1972, with a vote of 84 yeas, 8 nays and 7 not voting. With that, the ERA was finally presented by the 92nd Congress to the state legislatures, with a seven-year deadline for ratification by the required three-quarters of the legislatures. President Richard Nixon immediately endorsed the ERA’s approval. But it was stopped three states short of ratification before its June 30, 1982 deadline.Martha W. GriffithsMichiganRichard NixonMartha W. GriffithsMichiganRichard Nixon More than 2/3 of the women and all of the African Americans in state legislatures voted for the ERA, but less than 50% of the white men in the targeted legislatures cast pro-ERA votes in 1982. On July 21, 2009, Representative Carolyn B. Maloney, Democrat from New York, introduced the ERA in the House of Representatives. More than 2/3 of the women and all of the African Americans in state legislatures voted for the ERA, but less than 50% of the white men in the targeted legislatures cast pro-ERA votes in 1982. On July 21, 2009, Representative Carolyn B. Maloney, Democrat from New York, introduced the ERA in the House of Representatives.Carolyn B. Maloney DemocratCarolyn B. Maloney Democrat II. Prominent feminists and their works: Margaret Fuller (1810–1850) was a journalist, critic and women's rights activist associated with the American transcendental movement. Her book Woman in the Nineteenth Century is considered the first major feminist work in the United States. II. Prominent feminists and their works: Margaret Fuller (1810–1850) was a journalist, critic and women's rights activist associated with the American transcendental movement. Her book Woman in the Nineteenth Century is considered the first major feminist work in the United States. journalistcriticwomen's rights transcendentalWoman in the Nineteenth Centuryfeminist journalistcriticwomen's rights transcendentalWoman in the Nineteenth Centuryfeminist

Woman in the Nineteenth Century (essay in 1843, book in 1845): the souls of men and women are the same, even with differences in masculinity and femininity. “There is no wholly masculine man, no purely feminine woman.” For women to become such individuals, men need to remove their dominating influence, but women also need to claim themselves as self-dependent and remove themselves from man’s influence. Woman in the Nineteenth Century (essay in 1843, book in 1845): the souls of men and women are the same, even with differences in masculinity and femininity. “There is no wholly masculine man, no purely feminine woman.” For women to become such individuals, men need to remove their dominating influence, but women also need to claim themselves as self-dependent and remove themselves from man’s influence. Woman in the Nineteenth Century Woman in the Nineteenth Century Elizabeth Cady Stanton ( 斯坦顿,1815–1902) was an American social activist abolitionist, and leading figure of the early woman's movement. Her Declaration of Sentiments, presented at the first women's rights convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, is often credited with initiating the first organized woman's rights and woman's suffrage movements in the United States. Elizabeth Cady Stanton ( 斯坦顿,1815–1902) was an American social activist abolitionist, and leading figure of the early woman's movement. Her Declaration of Sentiments, presented at the first women's rights convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, is often credited with initiating the first organized woman's rights and woman's suffrage movements in the United States.woman's movementDeclaration of Sentimentsfirst women's rights conventionSeneca FallsNew York woman's suffragewoman's movementDeclaration of Sentimentsfirst women's rights conventionSeneca FallsNew York woman's suffrage Betty Friedan (1921–2006) was an American writer, activist and feminist. A leading figure in the “Second Wave” of the U.S. Women’s Movement. Friedan cofounded NOW in 1966 which aimed to bring women “into the mainstream of American society now [in] fully equal partnership with men”. Betty Friedan (1921–2006) was an American writer, activist and feminist. A leading figure in the “Second Wave” of the U.S. Women’s Movement. Friedan cofounded NOW in 1966 which aimed to bring women “into the mainstream of American society now [in] fully equal partnership with men”.writeractivist feministwriteractivist feminist Friedan’s book, The Feminine Mystique (1963) brought to light the lack of fulfillment in many women’s lives, which was generally kept hidden. It “is widely regarded as one of the most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.” Friedan’s book, The Feminine Mystique (1963) brought to light the lack of fulfillment in many women’s lives, which was generally kept hidden. It “is widely regarded as one of the most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.”

In The Feminine Mystique, Friedan criticized Sigmund Freud, functionalism, Margaret Mead (American cultural anthropologist) and sex-directed educators who thought women should be concerned only with marriage and family. She describes the motivational research behind advertising that “manipulates” women into consumption and perpetuates a “sick or immature” society instead of one that encourages women to develop their human intelligence. Friedan then advocates a “life plan” for women and explains the importance of education. In The Feminine Mystique, Friedan criticized Sigmund Freud, functionalism, Margaret Mead (American cultural anthropologist) and sex-directed educators who thought women should be concerned only with marriage and family. She describes the motivational research behind advertising that “manipulates” women into consumption and perpetuates a “sick or immature” society instead of one that encourages women to develop their human intelligence. Friedan then advocates a “life plan” for women and explains the importance of education.Sigmund Freud functionalismMargaret MeadAmericancultural anthropologistadvertisingSigmund Freud functionalismMargaret MeadAmericancultural anthropologistadvertising Janet Radcliffe Richards (1944- ) is a British feminist philosopher and bioethicist. She reads bioethics and is Director of the Centre for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine at University College London. Her identification with feminism and her focus on bioethics both occurred “by accident” during the writing of her first book, The Skeptical Feminist: A philosophical enquiry - bioethics being central to the abortion debate. Janet Radcliffe Richards (1944- ) is a British feminist philosopher and bioethicist. She reads bioethics and is Director of the Centre for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine at University College London. Her identification with feminism and her focus on bioethics both occurred “by accident” during the writing of her first book, The Skeptical Feminist: A philosophical enquiry - bioethics being central to the abortion debate.BritishfeministphilosopherbioethicistBritishfeministphilosopherbioethicist Gloria Marie Steinem (1934-) is an American feminist, journalist, and social and political activist. In 1971, Steinem cofounded the National Women's Political Caucus. The next year Steinem became the founding editor and publisher of Ms. magazine, which became the movement’s most influential publication. Steinem actively campaigned for the Equal Rights Amendment. Gloria Marie Steinem (1934-) is an American feminist, journalist, and social and political activist. In 1971, Steinem cofounded the National Women's Political Caucus. The next year Steinem became the founding editor and publisher of Ms. magazine, which became the movement’s most influential publication. Steinem actively campaigned for the Equal Rights Amendment.feminist National Women's Political CaucusMs.Equal Rights Amendmentfeminist National Women's Political CaucusMs.Equal Rights Amendment

Outrageous Acts and Everyday Rebellions consists of a collection of essays written from 1963-1983 on a plethora of topics from Steinem’s childhood to her work in national politics. In the introduction, Steinem says that feminism is for people who “dream of a justice that is yet to come and live on the edge of history.” She described her experience in socialization with some Bunnies ( 性感女郎 ) in the back room, discovering that women are lured into the club with promises of high wages, but many were making barely enough to get by. Steinem pointed out that the women are being used as objects without regard to their personal feelings or sense of dignity. A poignant comment made at the end of the article:“all women are Bunnies.” Titles of the essays include: “Erotica vs. Pornography”, “If Men Could Menstruate”. Outrageous Acts and Everyday Rebellions consists of a collection of essays written from 1963-1983 on a plethora of topics from Steinem’s childhood to her work in national politics. In the introduction, Steinem says that feminism is for people who “dream of a justice that is yet to come and live on the edge of history.” She described her experience in socialization with some Bunnies ( 性感女郎 ) in the back room, discovering that women are lured into the club with promises of high wages, but many were making barely enough to get by. Steinem pointed out that the women are being used as objects without regard to their personal feelings or sense of dignity. A poignant comment made at the end of the article:“all women are Bunnies.” Titles of the essays include: “Erotica vs. Pornography”, “If Men Could Menstruate”. Susan Moller Okin (1946-2004) was a New Zealand liberal feminist political philosopher and author. Susan Moller Okin (1946-2004) was a New Zealand liberal feminist political philosopher and author.liberal feministpolitical philosopherliberal feministpolitical philosopher Her 1989 book Justice, Gender, and the Family is a critique of modern theories of justice ranging from the liberalism to the communitarianism. According to Okin, these theorists write from a male perspective that wrongly assumes that the institution of the family is just. She believes that the family perpetuates gender inequalities throughout all of society. If a theory of justice is to be complete, Okin asserts that it must include women and it must address the gender inequalities. Her 1989 book Justice, Gender, and the Family is a critique of modern theories of justice ranging from the liberalism to the communitarianism. According to Okin, these theorists write from a male perspective that wrongly assumes that the institution of the family is just. She believes that the family perpetuates gender inequalities throughout all of society. If a theory of justice is to be complete, Okin asserts that it must include women and it must address the gender inequalities.theory of justicetheory of justice

The Second Stage is a 1981 book by American feminist, activist and writer Betty Friedan, best known for her earlier book The Feminine Mystique. The Second Stage is a 1981 book by American feminist, activist and writer Betty Friedan, best known for her earlier book The Feminine Mystique.Americanfeminist activistwriterBetty FriedanThe Feminine MystiqueAmericanfeminist activistwriterBetty FriedanThe Feminine Mystique In The Second Stage Friedan contends that “first stage” of feminism, a movement intended to liberate women from their traditional role as only mothers and house-wives, was coming to an end with the deadline for the ratification of The Equal Rights Amendment, and that it was time to take feminism to new stage, which could better deal with the issues of a new generation of women. In The Second Stage Friedan contends that “first stage” of feminism, a movement intended to liberate women from their traditional role as only mothers and house-wives, was coming to an end with the deadline for the ratification of The Equal Rights Amendment, and that it was time to take feminism to new stage, which could better deal with the issues of a new generation of women.Equal Rights AmendmentEqual Rights Amendment Issues discussed include: the double enslavement of women at work and at home, the social evolution of masculinity, political backlash to feminist lobbying, developments in the field of management and leadership, and the need to recognize the social and economic value of traditional female occupations. Issues discussed include: the double enslavement of women at work and at home, the social evolution of masculinity, political backlash to feminist lobbying, developments in the field of management and leadership, and the need to recognize the social and economic value of traditional female occupations.social evolution masculinitybacklashfeministlobbyingmanagementsocial evolution masculinitybacklashfeministlobbyingmanagement

Section Three Socialist Feminism Section Three Socialist Feminism Iris Marion Young Charlotte Perkins Gilman Ellen Goodman Emmeline Pankhurst Christabel Pankhurst Julia Mitchell Heidi Hartmann Socialist feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman’s life and argues that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women’s oppression. Socialist feminism is a dualist theory that broadens Marxist feminism’s argument for the role of capitalism in the oppression of women and radical feminism’s theory of the role of gender and the patriarchy. feminismliberationeconomic culturaloppressionMarxist feminismradical feminismgenderpatriarchyfeminismliberationeconomic culturaloppressionMarxist feminismradical feminismgenderpatriarchy Some contributors to this perspective have critiqued traditional Marxism for failing to find an inherent connection between patriarchy and classism. Marx and Engels were largely silent on gender oppression except to subsume it underneath broader class oppression. Some contributors to this perspective have critiqued traditional Marxism for failing to find an inherent connection between patriarchy and classism. Marx and Engels were largely silent on gender oppression except to subsume it underneath broader class oppression. Marxism

Marx felt that when class oppression was overcome, gender oppression would vanish as well. According to socialist feminists, this view of gender oppression as a sub-class of class oppression is naive and much of the work of socialist feminists has gone towards separating gender phenomena from class phenomena. Marx felt that when class oppression was overcome, gender oppression would vanish as well. According to socialist feminists, this view of gender oppression as a sub-class of class oppression is naive and much of the work of socialist feminists has gone towards separating gender phenomena from class phenomena. Other socialist feminists, notably two long-lived American organizations Radical Women and the Freedom Socialist Party, point to Frederick Engels (The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State) as a powerful explanation of the link between gender oppression and class exploitation. Other socialist feminists, notably two long-lived American organizations Radical Women and the Freedom Socialist Party, point to Frederick Engels (The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State) as a powerful explanation of the link between gender oppression and class exploitation.AmericanRadical WomenFreedom Socialist PartyFrederick EngelsThe Origin of the Family, Private Property and the StateAmericanRadical WomenFreedom Socialist PartyFrederick EngelsThe Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State On the other hand, the Socialist Party USA is a socialist feminist party. Its statement of principles says, “Socialist feminism confronts the common root of sexism, racism and classism: the determination of a life of oppression or privilege based on accidents of birth or circumstances.” On the other hand, the Socialist Party USA is a socialist feminist party. Its statement of principles says, “Socialist feminism confronts the common root of sexism, racism and classism: the determination of a life of oppression or privilege based on accidents of birth or circumstances.”Socialist Party USAstatement of principlesSocialist Party USAstatement of principles I. Dual systems: Juliet Mitchell ( 米切尔,1940-) is a New Zealand- born British Psychoanalyst and. She tried to reconcile psychoanalysis and feminism. She thinks that Marxism may provide a model within which non-Patriarchal structures for rearing children could occur. The lack of the ‘family romance’ would remove the Oedipus Complex from a child’s development, thus liberating women from the consequences of Penis Envy and the feeling of being castrated. I. Dual systems: Juliet Mitchell ( 米切尔,1940-) is a New Zealand- born British Psychoanalyst and. She tried to reconcile psychoanalysis and feminism. She thinks that Marxism may provide a model within which non-Patriarchal structures for rearing children could occur. The lack of the ‘family romance’ would remove the Oedipus Complex from a child’s development, thus liberating women from the consequences of Penis Envy and the feeling of being castrated.psychoanalysisfeminismMarxismPatriarchalOedipus ComplexPenis EnvycastratedpsychoanalysisfeminismMarxismPatriarchalOedipus ComplexPenis Envycastrated

Women: The Longest Revolution (1966): “The lesson of these reflections is that the liberation of women can only be achieved if all four structures in which they are integrated are transformed – Production, Reproduction, Sexuality and Socialization. A modification of any of them can be offset by a reinforcement of another.” http://www.marxists.org/subject/women/authors/mitchell-juliet/longest-revolution.htm Women: The Longest Revolution (1966): “The lesson of these reflections is that the liberation of women can only be achieved if all four structures in which they are integrated are transformed – Production, Reproduction, Sexuality and Socialization. A modification of any of them can be offset by a reinforcement of another.” http://www.marxists.org/subject/women/authors/mitchell-juliet/longest-revolution.htm Mitchell thinks that in England and the U.S., women won political right, but it left the socio-economic situation of women virtually unchanged, while in USSR, free love was taken as bourgeois invention, and divorce was made inaccessible and abortion illegal. Mitchell thinks that in England and the U.S., women won political right, but it left the socio-economic situation of women virtually unchanged, while in USSR, free love was taken as bourgeois invention, and divorce was made inaccessible and abortion illegal. Woman’s Estate (1971): Mitchell presented her own theories, which focus on four key factors: work, reproduction, sexuality and the socialization of children, and includes a detailed study of the modern family and a reevaluation of Freud’s work in this field. Woman’s Estate (1971): Mitchell presented her own theories, which focus on four key factors: work, reproduction, sexuality and the socialization of children, and includes a detailed study of the modern family and a reevaluation of Freud’s work in this field. Psychoanalysis and Feminism (1974): Juliet Mitchell believes that Freud’s analysis of the psychology of women contributes importantly to the understanding of the status of women in our patriarchal society. And unlike feminists who claim that Freud believed women inferior, passive, and submissive, Mitchell repeatedly asserts that Freud was describing his observations of women and not offering a prescription for the role they should have in society. Psychoanalysis and Feminism (1974): Juliet Mitchell believes that Freud’s analysis of the psychology of women contributes importantly to the understanding of the status of women in our patriarchal society. And unlike feminists who claim that Freud believed women inferior, passive, and submissive, Mitchell repeatedly asserts that Freud was describing his observations of women and not offering a prescription for the role they should have in society.

Heidi Hartmann (1945-) is a pioneering feminist economist and the founder of Institute for Women's Policy Research, a Research Professor at the The George Washington University in Washington, DC.. Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex (1976):“The division of labor by sex appears to have been universal throughout human history. In our society the sexual division of labor is hierarchical, with men on top and women on the bottom.” “It is my contention that the roots of women's present social status lie in this sex-ordered division of labor. It is my belief that not only must the hierarchical nature of the division of labor between the sexes be eliminated, but the very division of labor between the sexes itself must be eliminated if women are to attain equal social status with men and if women and men are to attain the full development of their human potentials.” Heidi Hartmann (1945-) is a pioneering feminist economist and the founder of Institute for Women's Policy Research, a Research Professor at the The George Washington University in Washington, DC.. Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Job Segregation by Sex (1976):“The division of labor by sex appears to have been universal throughout human history. In our society the sexual division of labor is hierarchical, with men on top and women on the bottom.” “It is my contention that the roots of women's present social status lie in this sex-ordered division of labor. It is my belief that not only must the hierarchical nature of the division of labor between the sexes be eliminated, but the very division of labor between the sexes itself must be eliminated if women are to attain equal social status with men and if women and men are to attain the full development of their human potentials.”feministeconomistInstitute for Women's Policy ResearchThe George Washington UniversityfeministeconomistInstitute for Women's Policy ResearchThe George Washington University II. Unified systems: Iris Marion Young (1949-2006) was Professor at the University of Pittsburgh. She is the author of Justice and the Politics of Difference (1990) and Intersecting Voices: Dilemmas of Gender, Political Philosophy and Policy (1997). “Socialist Feminism and the Limits of Dual Systems Theory”, Socialist Review, Summer 1980; Justice and the Politics of Difference: describes five “faces” of oppression: exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism, and systematic violence. II. Unified systems: Iris Marion Young (1949-2006) was Professor at the University of Pittsburgh. She is the author of Justice and the Politics of Difference (1990) and Intersecting Voices: Dilemmas of Gender, Political Philosophy and Policy (1997). “Socialist Feminism and the Limits of Dual Systems Theory”, Socialist Review, Summer 1980; Justice and the Politics of Difference: describes five “faces” of oppression: exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, cultural imperialism, and systematic violence.

Alison M. Jaggar ( 贾格尔 ) is Professor of Philosophy and Women’s Studies at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Her books include Feminist Frameworks co-edited with Paula Rothenberg; Feminist Politics and Human Nature; Gender/Body/Knowledge: Feminist Reconstructions of Being and Knowing, co-edited with Susan R. Bordo; and Living with Contradictions: Controversies in Feminist Social Ethics. Jaggar was a founding member of the Society for Women in Philosophy and is past Chair of the American Philosophical Committee on the Status of Women. Alison M. Jaggar ( 贾格尔 ) is Professor of Philosophy and Women’s Studies at the University of Colorado at Boulder. Her books include Feminist Frameworks co-edited with Paula Rothenberg; Feminist Politics and Human Nature; Gender/Body/Knowledge: Feminist Reconstructions of Being and Knowing, co-edited with Susan R. Bordo; and Living with Contradictions: Controversies in Feminist Social Ethics. Jaggar was a founding member of the Society for Women in Philosophy and is past Chair of the American Philosophical Committee on the Status of Women. Feminist Politics and Human Nature (1983): Describes liberal, radical, socialist and Marxist feminism. Feminist Politics and Human Nature (1983): Describes liberal, radical, socialist and Marxist feminism. Jaggar and Young ( 尤恩 ) attempted to introduce gender distinctive oppression as a necessary feature of capital. Substituting division of labor theory for class analysis, Young, a unified system theorist, attempted to develop a theory of gender-biased capitalism where class and gender relations had evolved together. By concentrating on the division of labor, she believed that it would be possible to be sensitive to the ethnic distinctions of a racist labor market. She argued that marginalization of women, and our function as secondary labor force is an essential and fundamental characteristic of capitalism. Jaggar and Young ( 尤恩 ) attempted to introduce gender distinctive oppression as a necessary feature of capital. Substituting division of labor theory for class analysis, Young, a unified system theorist, attempted to develop a theory of gender-biased capitalism where class and gender relations had evolved together. By concentrating on the division of labor, she believed that it would be possible to be sensitive to the ethnic distinctions of a racist labor market. She argued that marginalization of women, and our function as secondary labor force is an essential and fundamental characteristic of capitalism.

Section Four Radical Feminism Kate Millett Shulamith Firestone Germaine Greer Mary Daly Christine Dale Spender Kate Millett Shulamith Firestone Germaine Greer Mary Daly Christine Delphy Dale Spender 米利特 (US) 费尔斯通 (US) 格里尔 (US) 戴利 (US) 戴尔菲 (French) 斯班德 (Australian) Marilyn Frye Catharine MacKinnon Joan Cocks Sylvia Walby 弗雷 (US) 麦金南 (US) 考克斯 (US) 沃尔比 (British) 德沃金 US 科里尔 US

Introduction: Radical feminism focuses on the theory of patriarchy based on an assumption of “male supremacy”. It aims to challenge and to overthrow patriarchy by opposing standard gender roles, and calls for a radical reordering of society. Early radical feminism, arising within second-wave feminism in the 1960s, typically viewed patriarchy as a “trans-historical phenomenon” prior to or deeper than other sources of oppression. Later politics of radical feminism ranged from cultural feminism to more syncretic politics that placed issues of class, economics, etc. on a par with patriarchy as sources of oppression. Introduction: Radical feminism focuses on the theory of patriarchy based on an assumption of “male supremacy”. It aims to challenge and to overthrow patriarchy by opposing standard gender roles, and calls for a radical reordering of society. Early radical feminism, arising within second-wave feminism in the 1960s, typically viewed patriarchy as a “trans-historical phenomenon” prior to or deeper than other sources of oppression. Later politics of radical feminism ranged from cultural feminism to more syncretic politics that placed issues of class, economics, etc. on a par with patriarchy as sources of oppression. patriarchygender rolescultural feminismclasseconomics patriarchygender rolescultural feminismclasseconomics I. Sex and patriarchy: Kate Millett ( 米利特,1934-) is an American feminist writer and activist. She is best known for her 1970 book Sexual Politics. I. Sex and patriarchy: Kate Millett ( 米利特,1934-) is an American feminist writer and activist. She is best known for her 1970 book Sexual Politics.American feminist Sexual PoliticsAmerican feminist Sexual Politics Sexual Politics (1970) is “the first book of academic feminist literary criticism” and “one of the first feminist books of this decade to raise nationwide male ire”. Millet argues that “some authors view and discuss sex in a patriarchal and sexist ( 性别歧视 ) way. In contrast, she applauds the more nuanced gender politics of homosexuality. Sexual Politics (1970) is “the first book of academic feminist literary criticism” and “one of the first feminist books of this decade to raise nationwide male ire”. Millet argues that “some authors view and discuss sex in a patriarchal and sexist ( 性别歧视 ) way. In contrast, she applauds the more nuanced gender politics of homosexuality.sexist Germaine Greer ( 格里尔,1939-) is an Australian-born American writer, academic, journalist and scholar of early modern English literature, widely regarded as one of the most significant feminist voices of the later 20th century. Germaine Greer ( 格里尔,1939-) is an Australian-born American writer, academic, journalist and scholar of early modern English literature, widely regarded as one of the most significant feminist voices of the later 20th century.feminist

Greer argued in her book, The Female Eunuch, that women do not realize how much men hate them, and how much they are taught to hate themselves. Two of the book’s themes are that the nuclear family is a bad environment for women and for the raising of children; and that the manufacture of women’s sexuality by Western society was demeaning ( 贬低 ) and confining. Girls are feminized from childhood by being taught rules that subjugate them. When women embrace the stereotypical version of adult femininity, they develop a sense of shame about their own bodies, and lose their natural and political autonomy. Greer argued in her book, The Female Eunuch, that women do not realize how much men hate them, and how much they are taught to hate themselves. Two of the book’s themes are that the nuclear family is a bad environment for women and for the raising of children; and that the manufacture of women’s sexuality by Western society was demeaning ( 贬低 ) and confining. Girls are feminized from childhood by being taught rules that subjugate them. When women embrace the stereotypical version of adult femininity, they develop a sense of shame about their own bodies, and lose their natural and political autonomy.nuclear familysexuality autonomynuclear familysexuality autonomy Andrea Rita Dworkin ( 德沃金, 1946-2005) was an American radical feminist writer best known for her writing on pornography and sexuality. In the Preface to the British edition of her book, Right-Wing Women: The Politics of Domesticated Females (1991), Dworkin stated that the New Right in the United States focused on preserving male authority in the family, the promotion of fundamentalist versions of orthodox religion, combating abortion, and undermining efforts to combat domestic violence, and that it also had “succeeded in getting women as women to act effectively on behalf of male authority over women, on behalf of a hierarchy in which women are subservient to men, on behalf of women as the rightful property of men, on behalf of religion as an expression of transcendent male supremacy”. Andrea Rita Dworkin ( 德沃金, 1946-2005) was an American radical feminist writer best known for her writing on pornography and sexuality. In the Preface to the British edition of her book, Right-Wing Women: The Politics of Domesticated Females (1991), Dworkin stated that the New Right in the United States focused on preserving male authority in the family, the promotion of fundamentalist versions of orthodox religion, combating abortion, and undermining efforts to combat domestic violence, and that it also had “succeeded in getting women as women to act effectively on behalf of male authority over women, on behalf of a hierarchy in which women are subservient to men, on behalf of women as the rightful property of men, on behalf of religion as an expression of transcendent male supremacy”. radical feministNew Rightfundamentalist radical feministNew Rightfundamentalist

II. Sex and political and economic institutions: Christine Delphy ( 戴尔菲,1941-) is a major French architect of materialist feminism. Her influential work is Close to Home: A Materialist Analysis of Women’s Oppression (1984). Her work stresses the economic oppression of women within the household. II. Sex and political and economic institutions: Christine Delphy ( 戴尔菲,1941-) is a major French architect of materialist feminism. Her influential work is Close to Home: A Materialist Analysis of Women’s Oppression (1984). Her work stresses the economic oppression of women within the household. Sylvia Walby ( 沃尔比 ) is a British sociologist. In Theorizing Patriarchy (1990), Sylvia Walby argues that some of women’s hard- won social gains have been transformed into new traps. She proposes a combination of class analysis to explain gender relations in terms of both patriarchal and capitalist structure. Sylvia Walby ( 沃尔比 ) is a British sociologist. In Theorizing Patriarchy (1990), Sylvia Walby argues that some of women’s hard- won social gains have been transformed into new traps. She proposes a combination of class analysis to explain gender relations in terms of both patriarchal and capitalist structure. Catharine Alice MacKinnon ( 麦金南,1946-) is an American professor of law at the University of Michigan. Her Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law (1987) is a collection of lectures, in which, she states, the existence of a social hierarchy in which power is vested in men, and women have a vested interest in their own subordination. Rape, sexual harassment, and pornography are evidences of the social and legal subjugation of women. Her position is grounded on a clear assertion of the primacy of the social over the biological... Fundamental to her radical feminism is the claim that gender is a system of dominance rather than of difference. Catharine Alice MacKinnon ( 麦金南,1946-) is an American professor of law at the University of Michigan. Her Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law (1987) is a collection of lectures, in which, she states, the existence of a social hierarchy in which power is vested in men, and women have a vested interest in their own subordination. Rape, sexual harassment, and pornography are evidences of the social and legal subjugation of women. Her position is grounded on a clear assertion of the primacy of the social over the biological... Fundamental to her radical feminism is the claim that gender is a system of dominance rather than of difference.

III. Sex, reproduction and childbearing: Shulamith Firestone (1945-) is a Jewish Canadian-born American feminist. In The Dialectic of Sex (1970), Firestone argued that gender inequality originated in the patriarchy forced on women through their biology: the physical, social and psychological disadvantages imposed by pregnancy, childbirth, and subsequent child-rearing. She advocated the use of cybernetics ( 控制论 ) to carry out human reproduction in laboratories - as well as the proliferation of contraception, abortion, and state support for child-rearing. Among the reproductive technologies she predicted were sex selection and invitro fertilization （试管婴儿）. III. Sex, reproduction and childbearing: Shulamith Firestone (1945-) is a Jewish Canadian-born American feminist. In The Dialectic of Sex (1970), Firestone argued that gender inequality originated in the patriarchy forced on women through their biology: the physical, social and psychological disadvantages imposed by pregnancy, childbirth, and subsequent child-rearing. She advocated the use of cybernetics ( 控制论 ) to carry out human reproduction in laboratories - as well as the proliferation of contraception, abortion, and state support for child-rearing. Among the reproductive technologies she predicted were sex selection and invitro fertilization （试管婴儿）.feministgender inequalitypatriarchybiologycyberneticscontraceptionabortionsex selectioninvitro fertilizationfeministgender inequalitypatriarchybiologycyberneticscontraceptionabortionsex selectioninvitro fertilization Firestone explored a number of possible social changes that she argued would result in a post-patriarchal society, including the abolition of the nuclear family and the promotion of living in community units within a socialist society. Firestone explored a number of possible social changes that she argued would result in a post-patriarchal society, including the abolition of the nuclear family and the promotion of living in community units within a socialist society.nuclear familynuclear family Gena Corea ( 格里尔 ) is an American writer, in The Mother Machine Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination （授精） to Artificial Wombs (1988), she thinks that High Tech Baby promises blessings to women who long for children that involves personal and political dangers of what we still know little. Gena Corea ( 格里尔 ) is an American writer, in The Mother Machine Reproductive Technologies from Artificial Insemination （授精） to Artificial Wombs (1988), she thinks that High Tech Baby promises blessings to women who long for children that involves personal and political dangers of what we still know little.

Mary O’Brien ( 奥布赖恩， 1926-1998) was a British-born Canadian feminist political philosopher. She was a founding member of the (now defunct) Feminist Party of Canada. O’Brien’s most influential book was The Politics of Reproduction, which started from a materialist position, but her materialism was rooted in the biological body, not the laboring body, as Marx would have had it - or, labor in the sense of giving birth. For O’Brien the relations of reproduction were essential to understanding humans. Most fundamental was the opposition of maternity to paternity. A woman’s link to her child is obvious and involuntary, while paternity is never certain. Mary O’Brien ( 奥布赖恩， 1926-1998) was a British-born Canadian feminist political philosopher. She was a founding member of the (now defunct) Feminist Party of Canada. O’Brien’s most influential book was The Politics of Reproduction, which started from a materialist position, but her materialism was rooted in the biological body, not the laboring body, as Marx would have had it - or, labor in the sense of giving birth. For O’Brien the relations of reproduction were essential to understanding humans. Most fundamental was the opposition of maternity to paternity. A woman’s link to her child is obvious and involuntary, while paternity is never certain.feministpolitical philosophermaternitypaternity obviousinvoluntaryfeministpolitical philosophermaternitypaternity obviousinvoluntary O’Brien identified a second world historical moment of potentially equal importance: the development in the late twentieth century of technological contraception, a reproductive revolution which, though driven by a white western desire to limit population growth of non- white and working class “undesirables”, nevertheless gives women the possibility of reconfiguring their relations of reproduction. Contraception could allow all women the possibility of separating sexuality from reproduction as men have always been able to do. O’Brien identified a second world historical moment of potentially equal importance: the development in the late twentieth century of technological contraception, a reproductive revolution which, though driven by a white western desire to limit population growth of non- white and working class “undesirables”, nevertheless gives women the possibility of reconfiguring their relations of reproduction. Contraception could allow all women the possibility of separating sexuality from reproduction as men have always been able to do. technologicalcontraceptionrevolutionpopulationworking class technologicalcontraceptionrevolutionpopulationworking class IV. Sex and culture: Dale Spender (1943-) is an Australian feminist scholar and consultant. She consistently dresses in purple clothes, a choice she initially made for its symbolic reference to the suffragettes. IV. Sex and culture: Dale Spender (1943-) is an Australian feminist scholar and consultant. She consistently dresses in purple clothes, a choice she initially made for its symbolic reference to the suffragettes.

In Man Made Language (1980), Dale Spender presents a compelling and practical analysis of the androcentric construction of the English language: its social context, vocabulary, syntax, history, and usage. “Language helps form the limits of our reality,” she examines the male-oriented assumptions of the science of linguistics, specifically the premise of “female deficiency”. “When the starting premise is that women lack the forcefulness and effectiveness of men’s language, then hypotheses and explanations are formulated to account for female hesitancy.” In the Chapter, “Plus and Minus Male” she showed “Masculinity is the unmarked form: the assumption is that the world is male unless proven otherwise. “ Examples abound: doctor, woman doctor; writer, woman writer. There are literally fewer nouns in English to refer to females; when the female noun does exists, it often denigrates through the use of suffixes denoting “lesser”, as in waitress, stewardess, majorette. In Man Made Language (1980), Dale Spender presents a compelling and practical analysis of the androcentric construction of the English language: its social context, vocabulary, syntax, history, and usage. “Language helps form the limits of our reality,” she examines the male-oriented assumptions of the science of linguistics, specifically the premise of “female deficiency”. “When the starting premise is that women lack the forcefulness and effectiveness of men’s language, then hypotheses and explanations are formulated to account for female hesitancy.” In the Chapter, “Plus and Minus Male” she showed “Masculinity is the unmarked form: the assumption is that the world is male unless proven otherwise. “ Examples abound: doctor, woman doctor; writer, woman writer. There are literally fewer nouns in English to refer to females; when the female noun does exists, it often denigrates through the use of suffixes denoting “lesser”, as in waitress, stewardess, majorette. Marilyn Frye ( 弗雷， 1941-) is an American philosophy professor and feminist theorist. Frye is openly lesbian. In Politics of Reality - Essays In Feminist Theory, Frye argues that male heterosexual culture is fundamentally homoerotic. Men admire other men. Frye believes the phallogocentrism is characteristic of the fiction and Christian apologetics of C.S. Lewis (An Englishman lay theologian and Christian apologist). Frye argues that such phallogocentrism privileges the masculine in understanding meaning or gender relations. Marilyn Frye ( 弗雷， 1941-) is an American philosophy professor and feminist theorist. Frye is openly lesbian. In Politics of Reality - Essays In Feminist Theory, Frye argues that male heterosexual culture is fundamentally homoerotic. Men admire other men. Frye believes the phallogocentrism is characteristic of the fiction and Christian apologetics of C.S. Lewis (An Englishman lay theologian and Christian apologist). Frye argues that such phallogocentrism privileges the masculine in understanding meaning or gender relations.feminist theoristlesbianphallogocentrismC.S. Lewisfeminist theoristlesbianphallogocentrismC.S. Lewis

Mary Daly ( 戴利,1928-) is an American radical feminist philosopher and theologian. She taught at Boston College for 33 years, and agreed to be retired in 1999, after violating university policy by refusing to allow male students in her Women’s Studies classroom. Her second book, Beyond God the Father: toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation (1973), often regarded as a foundational work in feminist theology, is her attempt to explain and overcome androcentrism in Western religion. It was motivated by anger at what she and other feminists call the patriarchal oppression of women, reinforced by the Judeo-Christian tradition that views God as male and thus denies women their humanity and spirituality. Mary Daly ( 戴利,1928-) is an American radical feminist philosopher and theologian. She taught at Boston College for 33 years, and agreed to be retired in 1999, after violating university policy by refusing to allow male students in her Women’s Studies classroom. Her second book, Beyond God the Father: toward a Philosophy of Women’s Liberation (1973), often regarded as a foundational work in feminist theology, is her attempt to explain and overcome androcentrism in Western religion. It was motivated by anger at what she and other feminists call the patriarchal oppression of women, reinforced by the Judeo-Christian tradition that views God as male and thus denies women their humanity and spirituality.radical feminist philosophertheologianBoston College androcentrismWestern religionradical feminist philosophertheologianBoston College androcentrismWestern religion Joan Cocks ( 考克斯 ) is an American professor of politics and Chair of Critical Social Thought at Mount Holyoke College, Massachusetts. She is the author of The Oppositional Imagination: Feminism, Critique, and Political Theory (Routledge, 1989), Joan Cocks ( 考克斯 ) is an American professor of politics and Chair of Critical Social Thought at Mount Holyoke College, Massachusetts. She is the author of The Oppositional Imagination: Feminism, Critique, and Political Theory (Routledge, 1989), Joan Cocks. “Wordless Emotions: Some Critical Reflections on Radical Feminism,” Politics and Society, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1984, 32. Joan Cocks. “Wordless Emotions: Some Critical Reflections on Radical Feminism,” Politics and Society, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1984, 32.

Section Five Psychoanalytical Feminism Section Five Psychoanalytical Feminism Sigmund Freud Alfred Adler Karen Horney Clara Thompson Carol Gilligan Dorothy Dinnerstein Nancy Chodorow 艾德勒 (Austrian) 霍尼 (German) 汤普森 (US) 吉里根 (US) 迪纳斯坦 (US) 乔多罗 (US) 艾德勒 (Austrian) 霍尼 (German) 汤普森 (US) 吉里根 (US) 迪纳斯坦 (US) 乔多罗 (US) Introduction: The Oedipus complex, in psychoanalytic theory, is a group of largely unconscious ideas and feelings which centre around the desire to possess the parent of the opposite sex and eliminate the parent of the same sex. According to classical psychoanalytic theory, the complex appears during the so-called “oedipal phase” of libidinal ( 欲望的、生命力的、本能的 ) and ego development, i.e. between the ages of three and five. The complex is named after the Greek mythical character Oedipus, who kills his father and marries his mother. Relevant terms are castration anxiety and penis envy. Introduction: The Oedipus complex, in psychoanalytic theory, is a group of largely unconscious ideas and feelings which centre around the desire to possess the parent of the opposite sex and eliminate the parent of the same sex. According to classical psychoanalytic theory, the complex appears during the so-called “oedipal phase” of libidinal ( 欲望的、生命力的、本能的 ) and ego development, i.e. between the ages of three and five. The complex is named after the Greek mythical character Oedipus, who kills his father and marries his mother. Relevant terms are castration anxiety and penis envy.complexpsychoanalytic theorycomplexOedipuscomplexpsychoanalytic theorycomplexOedipus

The Electra complex is the psychoanalytic theory that a female’s psychosexual development involves a sexual attachment to her father, and is analogous to a boy’s attachment to his mother that forms the basis of the Oedipus complex. It was proposed by Carl Jung (a Swiss psychiatrist, 1875-1961) for Freud’s concept, deriving the name from the Greek myth of Electra, who wanted her brother to avenge the death of the siblings’ father, by killing their mother. The Electra complex is the psychoanalytic theory that a female’s psychosexual development involves a sexual attachment to her father, and is analogous to a boy’s attachment to his mother that forms the basis of the Oedipus complex. It was proposed by Carl Jung (a Swiss psychiatrist, 1875-1961) for Freud’s concept, deriving the name from the Greek myth of Electra, who wanted her brother to avenge the death of the siblings’ father, by killing their mother.psychoanalyticpsychosexualOedipus complexSwisspsychiatrist ElectrapsychoanalyticpsychosexualOedipus complexSwisspsychiatrist Electra I. Social determinism against genetic determinism: Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychologist and founder of the school of individual psychology. In collaboration with Sigmund Freud, Adler was among the co-founders of the psychoanalytic movement. He was the first major figure to break away from psychoanalysis, and an early supporter of feminism in psychology, believing that feelings of superiority and inferiority were often gendered and expressed symptomatically in characteristic masculine and feminine styles. I. Social determinism against genetic determinism: Alfred Adler (1870-1937) was an Austrian medical doctor, psychologist and founder of the school of individual psychology. In collaboration with Sigmund Freud, Adler was among the co-founders of the psychoanalytic movement. He was the first major figure to break away from psychoanalysis, and an early supporter of feminism in psychology, believing that feelings of superiority and inferiority were often gendered and expressed symptomatically in characteristic masculine and feminine styles.AustrianSigmund FreudfeminismAustrianSigmund Freudfeminism

Karen Horney ( 霍尼,1885-1952) was a German psychoanalyst and psychiatrist of Norwegian and Dutch descent. Her theories questioned some Freudian views, particularly his theory of sexuality, as well as the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis and its genetic psychology. Her book titled Feminine Psychology was an amalgamation of 14 papers written in the 1920s. In her essay titled “The Problem of Feminine Masochism （受虐狂） ”, Horney demonstrated that cultures and societies worldwide encouraged women to be dependent on men for their love, prestige, wealth, care and protection. She pointed out that in the society, a will to please, satiate and overvalue men had emerged. Women were regarded as objects of charm and beauty. Horney believed that both men and women have a motive to be ingenious and productive. Women are able to satisfy this need normally and interiorly -- to do this they become pregnant and give birth. Men please this need only through external ways. Karen Horney ( 霍尼,1885-1952) was a German psychoanalyst and psychiatrist of Norwegian and Dutch descent. Her theories questioned some Freudian views, particularly his theory of sexuality, as well as the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis and its genetic psychology. Her book titled Feminine Psychology was an amalgamation of 14 papers written in the 1920s. In her essay titled “The Problem of Feminine Masochism （受虐狂） ”, Horney demonstrated that cultures and societies worldwide encouraged women to be dependent on men for their love, prestige, wealth, care and protection. She pointed out that in the society, a will to please, satiate and overvalue men had emerged. Women were regarded as objects of charm and beauty. Horney believed that both men and women have a motive to be ingenious and productive. Women are able to satisfy this need normally and interiorly -- to do this they become pregnant and give birth. Men please this need only through external ways. Clara Mabel Thompson (1893-1958) was an American psychoanalyst. Thompson saw gender most fundamentally as a cultural creation: gender characteristics are established by the assignment of social cultural meanings to biological differences. Clara Mabel Thompson (1893-1958) was an American psychoanalyst. Thompson saw gender most fundamentally as a cultural creation: gender characteristics are established by the assignment of social cultural meanings to biological differences.

Thompson suggested that, because of economic disparities and the use of seductiveness （诱人的） as an understandable compensatory commodity, “woman’s alleged narcissism and greater need to be loved may be entirely the result of economic necessity”. In her paper “Towards a Psychology of Women”, Thompson (1953) focused on ways in which society frustrates or distorts basic biological drives of women. Moreover, she points out the conflict of the woman as to what and who she is, since she is being educated in professional competitiveness, like men do, but this contradicts to her social role as a mother. Thompson suggested that, because of economic disparities and the use of seductiveness （诱人的） as an understandable compensatory commodity, “woman’s alleged narcissism and greater need to be loved may be entirely the result of economic necessity”. In her paper “Towards a Psychology of Women”, Thompson (1953) focused on ways in which society frustrates or distorts basic biological drives of women. Moreover, she points out the conflict of the woman as to what and who she is, since she is being educated in professional competitiveness, like men do, but this contradicts to her social role as a mother. II. Female ethics versus male ethics: Carol Gilligan ( 吉里根， 1936-) is an American feminist, ethicist, and psychologist. She is a Professor at New York University best known for her work with and against Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987, an eminent psychologist at Harvard). In 1982, she published In a Different Voice, criticizing Kohlberg’s stages of moral development of children which argued that girls on average reached a lower level of moral development than boys did. Gilligan argued that the participants in Kohlberg’s basic study were largely male. She also stated that the scoring method Kohlberg used tended to favor a principled way of reasoning that was more common to boys, and failed to incorporate “female” values. II. Female ethics versus male ethics: Carol Gilligan ( 吉里根， 1936-) is an American feminist, ethicist, and psychologist. She is a Professor at New York University best known for her work with and against Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987, an eminent psychologist at Harvard). In 1982, she published In a Different Voice, criticizing Kohlberg’s stages of moral development of children which argued that girls on average reached a lower level of moral development than boys did. Gilligan argued that the participants in Kohlberg’s basic study were largely male. She also stated that the scoring method Kohlberg used tended to favor a principled way of reasoning that was more common to boys, and failed to incorporate “female” values.AmericanfeministethicistpsychologistNew York UniversityLawrence KohlbergIn a Different VoiceAmericanfeministethicistpsychologistNew York UniversityLawrence KohlbergIn a Different Voice

Carol Gilligan explains that male development has typically focused on separation, individuation, logic, and hierarchy. Female development, on the other hand, has emphasized attachment, relationship, connection, and communication. She seeks to demonstrate that whereas men base their moral judgments on individual rights and abstract principles of right and wrong, women’s moral understanding is “contextual”, emphasizing human needs, empathy, and interdependence. Carol Gilligan explains that male development has typically focused on separation, individuation, logic, and hierarchy. Female development, on the other hand, has emphasized attachment, relationship, connection, and communication. She seeks to demonstrate that whereas men base their moral judgments on individual rights and abstract principles of right and wrong, women’s moral understanding is “contextual”, emphasizing human needs, empathy, and interdependence. III. Shared parenting versus single parenting: Dorothy Dinnerstein ( 迪纳斯坦， 1923-1992) was an American feminist academic and activist, best known for her book The Mermaid and the Minotaur: Sexual Arrangements and Human Malaise (1976). Using some elements of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis, Dinnerstein argued that sexism and aggression are both inevitable consequences of childrearing’s being left more or less exclusively to women.The kernel of her argument is that so long as we all are raised by our mothers or by female caregivers, children will grow up with a deep- seated resentment of the feminine; many of the neurotic features (e.g. sexism, self-hatred, exploitation of nature...) of the present human condition emerge as a direct result of the fact our earliest parent is most often and most consistently female. So Dinnerstein thought the nuclear family was patriarchal and sexist. III. Shared parenting versus single parenting: Dorothy Dinnerstein ( 迪纳斯坦， 1923-1992) was an American feminist academic and activist, best known for her book The Mermaid and the Minotaur: Sexual Arrangements and Human Malaise (1976). Using some elements of Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis, Dinnerstein argued that sexism and aggression are both inevitable consequences of childrearing’s being left more or less exclusively to women.The kernel of her argument is that so long as we all are raised by our mothers or by female caregivers, children will grow up with a deep- seated resentment of the feminine; many of the neurotic features (e.g. sexism, self-hatred, exploitation of nature...) of the present human condition emerge as a direct result of the fact our earliest parent is most often and most consistently female. So Dinnerstein thought the nuclear family was patriarchal and sexist.feminist activistSigmund Freudpsychoanalysis sexismaggressionfeminist activistSigmund Freudpsychoanalysis sexismaggression

She’s behind the idea of “Mr. Mom’s”, men who insist on equal involvement with women in the care of children. Women need to share their god-like maternal power, their be-all and end-all status in the eyes of helpless infants, toddlers, and children, if they are to escape the mutinous （反抗的） resentment this creates, resentment which later leads to adult male sexism. Men and women deserve equal weight in the lives of the young. She’s behind the idea of “Mr. Mom’s”, men who insist on equal involvement with women in the care of children. Women need to share their god-like maternal power, their be-all and end-all status in the eyes of helpless infants, toddlers, and children, if they are to escape the mutinous （反抗的） resentment this creates, resentment which later leads to adult male sexism. Men and women deserve equal weight in the lives of the young. Nancy Julia Chodorow (1944-) is an American feminist sociologist and psychoanalyst. In her thesis “Family Structure and Feminine Personality” (1974), Nancy Chodorow demonstrated that for a woman, mothering involves a double identification. She identifies with her own mother and also re-experiences herself as a mothered child. Since she was a female child and her mother was female, we expect that a woman’s identification with a daughter will be stronger than her identification with a son. Nancy Julia Chodorow (1944-) is an American feminist sociologist and psychoanalyst. In her thesis “Family Structure and Feminine Personality” (1974), Nancy Chodorow demonstrated that for a woman, mothering involves a double identification. She identifies with her own mother and also re-experiences herself as a mothered child. Since she was a female child and her mother was female, we expect that a woman’s identification with a daughter will be stronger than her identification with a son.feministsociologistpsychoanalystfeministsociologistpsychoanalyst She is more likely “to experience her daughter (or parts of her daughter’s life) as herself”. Sons, on the other hand, are treated differently by the mother. She will tend to emphasize his masculinity and push him into a sexually toned male-role relation to her. The mother identifies less with a son and pushes him towards early differentiation. She is more likely “to experience her daughter (or parts of her daughter’s life) as herself”. Sons, on the other hand, are treated differently by the mother. She will tend to emphasize his masculinity and push him into a sexually toned male-role relation to her. The mother identifies less with a son and pushes him towards early differentiation.

IV. A feminist interpretation of Oedipus Complex: In her groundbreaking Psychoanalysis and Feminism: Freud, Reich, Laing, and Women (1975), Juliet Mitchell, responding to the charge that psychoanalysis supports patriarchal sexual relations. With Betty Friedan, Mitchell illustrated how she neglected to consider how Freud could not be condemned for being a product of his Victorian time. Mitchell said, Freud’s pioneering work in psychology and his invention of psychoanalysis, and his general achievement, was basic for the liberation and emancipation of women. IV. A feminist interpretation of Oedipus Complex: In her groundbreaking Psychoanalysis and Feminism: Freud, Reich, Laing, and Women (1975), Juliet Mitchell, responding to the charge that psychoanalysis supports patriarchal sexual relations. With Betty Friedan, Mitchell illustrated how she neglected to consider how Freud could not be condemned for being a product of his Victorian time. Mitchell said, Freud’s pioneering work in psychology and his invention of psychoanalysis, and his general achievement, was basic for the liberation and emancipation of women. Juliet MitchellJuliet Mitchell In Women: The Longest Revolution (1966), Mitchell said, “Capitalism and the attendant demands of the newly emergent bourgeoisie accorded woman a new status as wife and mother. Her legal rights improved; there was vigorous controversy over her social position: wife-beating was condemned.” “Obviously, the main breach in the traditional value-pattern has, so far, been the increase in premarital sexual experience. The current wave of sexual liberalization, in the present context, could become conducive to the greater general freedom of women. Equally, it could presage new forms of oppression.” “Capitalist market relations have historically been a precondition of socialism; bourgeois marital relations (contrary to the denunciation of the Communist Manifesto) may equally be a precondition of women’s liberation.” In Women: The Longest Revolution (1966), Mitchell said, “Capitalism and the attendant demands of the newly emergent bourgeoisie accorded woman a new status as wife and mother. Her legal rights improved; there was vigorous controversy over her social position: wife-beating was condemned.” “Obviously, the main breach in the traditional value-pattern has, so far, been the increase in premarital sexual experience. The current wave of sexual liberalization, in the present context, could become conducive to the greater general freedom of women. Equally, it could presage new forms of oppression.” “Capitalist market relations have historically been a precondition of socialism; bourgeois marital relations (contrary to the denunciation of the Communist Manifesto) may equally be a precondition of women’s liberation.”

Chapter Nine Ecologism Introduction: Ecologism (related terms include ecological politics, political ecology, green politics, and environmental politics) is an ideology that gives moral consideration to all living creatures and the systems in which they live. Although humans are a central concern, proponents of ecologism view all life in contextual terms, assessing human socioeconomic-political perspectives within the greater framework of the ecosphere. Introduction: Ecologism (related terms include ecological politics, political ecology, green politics, and environmental politics) is an ideology that gives moral consideration to all living creatures and the systems in which they live. Although humans are a central concern, proponents of ecologism view all life in contextual terms, assessing human socioeconomic-political perspectives within the greater framework of the ecosphere. The meaning of ecologism and that of environmentalism are overlapped. Both are concerned with environmental conservation, represented with the color green. Environmentalism belongs to the shallow green, which is a broad philosophy and social movement regarding concerns for environmental conservation. Environmentalism can also be defined as a social movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education. In recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the environmental movement is centered on ecology, health, and human rights. The meaning of ecologism and that of environmentalism are overlapped. Both are concerned with environmental conservation, represented with the color green. Environmentalism belongs to the shallow green, which is a broad philosophy and social movement regarding concerns for environmental conservation. Environmentalism can also be defined as a social movement that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education. In recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the environmental movement is centered on ecology, health, and human rights.humanityenvironmental movementecologyhealth human rightshumanityenvironmental movementecologyhealth human rights

There are conservation movements, ecology movements, peace movements, green parties, green- and eco-anarchists who often subscribe to very different ideologies, while supporting the same goals as those who call themselves “environmentalists”. There are conservation movements, ecology movements, peace movements, green parties, green- and eco-anarchists who often subscribe to very different ideologies, while supporting the same goals as those who call themselves “environmentalists”. The most conspicuous is Green politics, which is a political ideology placing a high importance on environmental goals, and on achieving these goals through broad-based, grassroots, participatory democracy. Green politics is associated with the Green movement, which has been active through Green parties in many nations since the early 1980s. The most conspicuous is Green politics, which is a political ideology placing a high importance on environmental goals, and on achieving these goals through broad-based, grassroots, participatory democracy. Green politics is associated with the Green movement, which has been active through Green parties in many nations since the early 1980s.grassrootsparticipatory democracy Green partiesgrassrootsparticipatory democracy Green parties

Section One Green Movement and Ecologism Section One Green Movement and Ecologism Ernst Haeckel Jonathon Porritt Rachel Carson Edward Goldsmith E. F. Schumacher Albert Schweitzer Aldo Leopold

I. The rising of environmentalism and development of green politics: 1. Early philosophical and political responses toward the negative effects of industrialization: The philosophical roots of environmentalism can be traced back to enlightenment thinkers such as Rousseau (1712-1778) and, later, the naturalist Thoreau (1817-1862) in America. Organized environmentalism began in late 19th Century Europe and the United States as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution with its emphasis on unbridled economic expansion. “Green politics” first began as conservation movements. In far-right and fascist parties, nationalism has demonstratively been tied into a sort of green politics. I. The rising of environmentalism and development of green politics: 1. Early philosophical and political responses toward the negative effects of industrialization: The philosophical roots of environmentalism can be traced back to enlightenment thinkers such as Rousseau (1712-1778) and, later, the naturalist Thoreau (1817-1862) in America. Organized environmentalism began in late 19th Century Europe and the United States as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution with its emphasis on unbridled economic expansion. “Green politics” first began as conservation movements. In far-right and fascist parties, nationalism has demonstratively been tied into a sort of green politics.RousseauThoreauIndustrial RevolutionRousseauThoreauIndustrial Revolution 2. The Cold War, the predicted Nuclear Winter and the continuous deterioration of environment in the 1960s evoked fears in intellect and politics. The most notable is the Club of Roman’s 1972 book, The Limits to Growth. In politics, left-green platforms that make up the green parties drew on the science of ecology, environmentalism, deep ecology, feminism, pacifism, anti-nuclear movement, anarchism, libertarian socialism, social democracy, eco-socialism, and social ecology. In the 1970s, as these movements grew in influence, green politics arose. 2. The Cold War, the predicted Nuclear Winter and the continuous deterioration of environment in the 1960s evoked fears in intellect and politics. The most notable is the Club of Roman’s 1972 book, The Limits to Growth. In politics, left-green platforms that make up the green parties drew on the science of ecology, environmentalism, deep ecology, feminism, pacifism, anti-nuclear movement, anarchism, libertarian socialism, social democracy, eco-socialism, and social ecology. In the 1970s, as these movements grew in influence, green politics arose.

3. The growth of green parties: In March 1972 the world’s first green party, the United Tasmania Group, was formed in Australia. In May 1972, in New Zealand, a meeting launched the Values Party, the world’s first countrywide green party. In 1973, Europe’s first green party, the UK’s Ecology Party, came into existence. After contesting the 1979 Euro elections German Greens identified Four Pillars of the Green Party as the basis of a platform, and first coined the term “Green”. The German Greens contended in their first national election in 1980, and won 27 seats in the Bundestag in 1983. 3. The growth of green parties: In March 1972 the world’s first green party, the United Tasmania Group, was formed in Australia. In May 1972, in New Zealand, a meeting launched the Values Party, the world’s first countrywide green party. In 1973, Europe’s first green party, the UK’s Ecology Party, came into existence. After contesting the 1979 Euro elections German Greens identified Four Pillars of the Green Party as the basis of a platform, and first coined the term “Green”. The German Greens contended in their first national election in 1980, and won 27 seats in the Bundestag in 1983.United Tasmania GroupAustraliaNew ZealandValues PartyEcology PartyFour Pillars of the Green PartyGerman GreensBundestagUnited Tasmania GroupAustraliaNew ZealandValues PartyEcology PartyFour Pillars of the Green PartyGerman GreensBundestag The first Canadian foray into green politics took place in the Maritimes when 11 independent candidates ran in the 1980 federal election under the banner of the Small Party. In Finland, in 1995, the Green League became the first European Green party to form part of a state-level Cabinet. The German Greens followed, forming a government with the Social Democratic Party of Germany (the “Red- Green Alliance”) from 1998 to 2005. Green ideology emphasizes participatory democracy and the principle of “thinking globally, acting locally”. As such, the ideal Green Party is thought to grow from the bottom up. There is a growing level of global cooperation between Green parties. The first Canadian foray into green politics took place in the Maritimes when 11 independent candidates ran in the 1980 federal election under the banner of the Small Party. In Finland, in 1995, the Green League became the first European Green party to form part of a state-level Cabinet. The German Greens followed, forming a government with the Social Democratic Party of Germany (the “Red- Green Alliance”) from 1998 to 2005. Green ideology emphasizes participatory democracy and the principle of “thinking globally, acting locally”. As such, the ideal Green Party is thought to grow from the bottom up. There is a growing level of global cooperation between Green parties.Finland Green LeagueRed- Green Alliance participatory democracythinking globally, acting locallyFinland Green LeagueRed- Green Alliance participatory democracythinking globally, acting locally

The first Planetary Meeting of Greens was held May 30-31st,1992 in Rio de Janeiro, immediately preceding the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held there. More than 200 Greens from 28 nations attended. The first formal Global Greens Gathering took place in Canberra, in 2001, with more than 800 Greens from 72 countries in attendance. The second Global Green Congress was held in Sao Paolo, Brazil, in May 2008, when 75 parties were represented. Separately from the Global Green Gatherings, Global Green Meetings take place. The first Planetary Meeting of Greens was held May 30-31st,1992 in Rio de Janeiro, immediately preceding the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held there. More than 200 Greens from 28 nations attended. The first formal Global Greens Gathering took place in Canberra, in 2001, with more than 800 Greens from 72 countries in attendance. The second Global Green Congress was held in Sao Paolo, Brazil, in May 2008, when 75 parties were represented. Separately from the Global Green Gatherings, Global Green Meetings take place.Canberra2001Canberra2001 The member parties of the Global Greens are organized into four continental federations: Federation of Green Parties of Africa, Federation of the Green Parties of the Americas, Asia-Pacific Green Network, European Federation of Green Parties. The member parties of the Global Greens are organized into four continental federations: Federation of Green Parties of Africa, Federation of the Green Parties of the Americas, Asia-Pacific Green Network, European Federation of Green Parties.Global GreensGlobal Greens 4. Responses of the United Nations and nation states: In 1971, the UN Conference on the Human Environment commissioned a report on the state of the planet. Titled “Only One Earth”, the report summarized the findings of 152 leading experts from 58 countries in preparation for the first UN meeting on the environment, held in Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972. The meeting issued the UN Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment, and established the UN Environment Programme (UNEP). 4. Responses of the United Nations and nation states: In 1971, the UN Conference on the Human Environment commissioned a report on the state of the planet. Titled “Only One Earth”, the report summarized the findings of 152 leading experts from 58 countries in preparation for the first UN meeting on the environment, held in Stockholm from 5 to 16 June 1972. The meeting issued the UN Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment, and established the UN Environment Programme (UNEP).

In 1987, the United Nations released the Brundtland Report, which defines sustainable development as “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” The United Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome Document refers to the “interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars” of sustainable development as economic development, social development, and environmental protection. In 1987, the United Nations released the Brundtland Report, which defines sustainable development as “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” The United Nations 2005 World Summit Outcome Document refers to the “interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars” of sustainable development as economic development, social development, and environmental protection.United NationsBrundtland Report2005 World SummitUnited NationsBrundtland Report2005 World Summit Around the turn of the century, the United Nations held a series of meetings on environmental protection and issued UN Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992), UN Declaration of Barbados (1994), UN Nairobi Declaration on the Role and Mandate of the United Nations Environment Program.(1997) and UN Malmö Ministerial Declarations (2000). Around the turn of the century, the United Nations held a series of meetings on environmental protection and issued UN Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992), UN Declaration of Barbados (1994), UN Nairobi Declaration on the Role and Mandate of the United Nations Environment Program.(1997) and UN Malmö Ministerial Declarations (2000). The Kyoto Protocol linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at combating global warming, was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of November 2009, 187 states have signed and ratified the protocol. The most notable non-member of the Protocol is the United States, which is a signatory of UNFCCC and was responsible for 36.1% of the 1990 emission levels. The Kyoto Protocol linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at combating global warming, was initially adopted on 11 December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of November 2009, 187 states have signed and ratified the protocol. The most notable non-member of the Protocol is the United States, which is a signatory of UNFCCC and was responsible for 36.1% of the 1990 emission levels.United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Changeglobal warmingKyotoJapanUnited StatesUnited Nations Framework Convention on Climate Changeglobal warmingKyotoJapanUnited States The Millennium Development Goals: At the Millennium Summit in September 2000 the largest gathering of world leaders in history adopted the UN Millennium Declaration, committing their nations to a new global partnership to reduce extreme poverty and setting out a series of time-bound targets, with a deadline of 2015, that have become known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which set out eight Millennium Development Goals, the seventh of which is Ensure Environmental Sustainability. The Millennium Development Goals: At the Millennium Summit in September 2000 the largest gathering of world leaders in history adopted the UN Millennium Declaration, committing their nations to a new global partnership to reduce extreme poverty and setting out a series of time-bound targets, with a deadline of 2015, that have become known as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which set out eight Millennium Development Goals, the seventh of which is Ensure Environmental Sustainability.Millennium Development Goals Millennium Development Goals

II. Basic characteristics of ecologism: Since green politics emerged as an ideology, it has been defined by a few key green principles. The German Greens drafted the earliest statement of this kind, called the Four Pillars of the Green Party, which have been repeated by many green parties worldwide as a foundational statement of the green ideology: Ecological wisdom, Social justice, Grassroots democracy, Nonviolence. II. Basic characteristics of ecologism: Since green politics emerged as an ideology, it has been defined by a few key green principles. The German Greens drafted the earliest statement of this kind, called the Four Pillars of the Green Party, which have been repeated by many green parties worldwide as a foundational statement of the green ideology: Ecological wisdom, Social justice, Grassroots democracy, Nonviolence. Four Pillars of the Green PartyEcological wisdomSocial justiceGrassroots democracy Nonviolence Four Pillars of the Green PartyEcological wisdomSocial justiceGrassroots democracy Nonviolence In 1984, the Green Committees of Correspondence in the United States expanded the Four Pillars into Ten Key Values which, in addition to the Four Pillars mentioned above, include: Decentralization, Community-based economics,Post-patriarchal values (Feminism), Respect for diversity, Global responsibility, Future focus. In 1984, the Green Committees of Correspondence in the United States expanded the Four Pillars into Ten Key Values which, in addition to the Four Pillars mentioned above, include: Decentralization, Community-based economics,Post-patriarchal values (Feminism), Respect for diversity, Global responsibility, Future focus.Green Committees of CorrespondenceGreen Committees of Correspondence In 2001, the Global Greens Charter identified six guiding principles: Ecological wisdom, Social justice, Participatory democracy, Nonviolence, Sustainability, Respect for diversity. In 2001, the Global Greens Charter identified six guiding principles: Ecological wisdom, Social justice, Participatory democracy, Nonviolence, Sustainability, Respect for diversity.Global Greens CharterGlobal Greens Charter 1. Ideological pluralism, compromising with all kinds of political factions. 1. Ideological pluralism, compromising with all kinds of political factions. 2. Neo-radicalism or neo-utopianism. 2. Neo-radicalism or neo-utopianism.

3. Holism opposed to the analysis-induction methodology of western modern sciences, especially the mechanical linear thinking method, represented by Francis Bacon, René Descartes‎, and Isaac Newton, emphasizing cosmic wholeness and interdependence among the parts and between the parts and the whole. 3. Holism opposed to the analysis-induction methodology of western modern sciences, especially the mechanical linear thinking method, represented by Francis Bacon, René Descartes‎, and Isaac Newton, emphasizing cosmic wholeness and interdependence among the parts and between the parts and the whole. 4. Postmaterialism, a priority to non-material values: quality of life, culture, the preservation of the environment, opposed to reckless pursuit of materials and hedonism. 4. Postmaterialism, a priority to non-material values: quality of life, culture, the preservation of the environment, opposed to reckless pursuit of materials and hedonism. Jonathon Porritt, (1950-) is an English environmentalist. He appears frequently in the media, writing in magazines, newspapers and books. Jonathon Porritt, (1950-) is an English environmentalist. He appears frequently in the media, writing in magazines, newspapers and books.EnglishenvironmentalistEnglishenvironmentalist III. Theoretical sources and schools of ecologism: 1. Naturalistic philosophies: Rousseau looked to a hypothetical State of Nature as a normative guide. In Discourse on the Arts and Sciences Rousseau argues that the arts and sciences arose not from authentic human needs but rather as a result of pride and vanity. Moreover, the opportunities they create for idleness and luxury have contributed to the corruption of man. He proposed that the progress of knowledge had made governments more powerful and had crushed individual liberty; and he concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of true friendship by replacing it with jealousy, fear, and suspicion. III. Theoretical sources and schools of ecologism: 1. Naturalistic philosophies: Rousseau looked to a hypothetical State of Nature as a normative guide. In Discourse on the Arts and Sciences Rousseau argues that the arts and sciences arose not from authentic human needs but rather as a result of pride and vanity. Moreover, the opportunities they create for idleness and luxury have contributed to the corruption of man. He proposed that the progress of knowledge had made governments more powerful and had crushed individual liberty; and he concluded that material progress had actually undermined the possibility of true friendship by replacing it with jealousy, fear, and suspicion.State of NatureDiscourse on the Arts and SciencesvanityknowledgelibertyState of NatureDiscourse on the Arts and Sciencesvanityknowledgeliberty

In Daybreak Nietzsche harshly criticizes the prominent moral schemes of his day: Christianity, Kantianism, and utilitarianism. He indicates his desire to bring about a new, more naturalistic source of value in the vital impulses of life itself. His genealogical account of the development of master-slave morality occupies a central place. In Daybreak Nietzsche harshly criticizes the prominent moral schemes of his day: Christianity, Kantianism, and utilitarianism. He indicates his desire to bring about a new, more naturalistic source of value in the vital impulses of life itself. His genealogical account of the development of master-slave morality occupies a central place.DaybreakChristianityKantianismutilitarianism valuelifemaster-slave moralityDaybreakChristianityKantianismutilitarianism valuelifemaster-slave morality Many anarchists are vegetarian or vegan (known as veganarchists) and have played a role in combating perceived injustices against animals. They usually describe the struggle for the liberation of non- human animals as a natural outgrowth of the struggle for human freedom. Many anarchists are vegetarian or vegan (known as veganarchists) and have played a role in combating perceived injustices against animals. They usually describe the struggle for the liberation of non- human animals as a natural outgrowth of the struggle for human freedom.vegetarianveganveganarchistsnon- human freedomvegetarianveganveganarchistsnon- human freedom Systems theory is an interdisciplinary theory about the nature of complex systems in nature, society, and science, and is a framework by which one can investigate and/or describe any group of objects that work together to produce some result. Systems theory first originated in biology in the 1920s out of the need to explain the interrelatedness of organisms in ecosystems. As a technical and general academic area of study it predominantly refers to the science of systems that resulted from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (1901-1972, an Austrian- born American biologist). Systems theory is an interdisciplinary theory about the nature of complex systems in nature, society, and science, and is a framework by which one can investigate and/or describe any group of objects that work together to produce some result. Systems theory first originated in biology in the 1920s out of the need to explain the interrelatedness of organisms in ecosystems. As a technical and general academic area of study it predominantly refers to the science of systems that resulted from Bertalanffy's General System Theory (1901-1972, an Austrian- born American biologist).interdisciplinary complex systemsnaturesocietyscienceBertalanffyGeneral System Theoryinterdisciplinary complex systemsnaturesocietyscienceBertalanffyGeneral System Theory Taoist “Harmonization of the Sky and the Human Beings” ( 天人合一 ). Confucian and American Indian “Telepathic Outlook Between Man and Heaven” ( 天人感应 ). Buddhist “no killing” ( 不杀生 ). Taoist “Harmonization of the Sky and the Human Beings” ( 天人合一 ). Confucian and American Indian “Telepathic Outlook Between Man and Heaven” ( 天人感应 ). Buddhist “no killing” ( 不杀生 ).

2. Ecologist theories: Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) was an eminent German biologist, naturalist, philosopher, physician, professor and artist who discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms, and coined many terms in biology, including phylum, phylogeny, ecology and the kingdom Protista. 2. Ecologist theories: Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919) was an eminent German biologist, naturalist, philosopher, physician, professor and artist who discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a genealogical tree relating all life forms, and coined many terms in biology, including phylum, phylogeny, ecology and the kingdom Protista. Germanbiologistnaturalistphilosopherphysicianprofessor artistspeciesgenealogicalbiologyphylumphylogenyecologyProtista Germanbiologistnaturalistphilosopherphysicianprofessor artistspeciesgenealogicalbiologyphylumphylogenyecologyProtista Rachel Carson ( 卡森,1907–1964) was an American marine biologist and nature writer whose writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement. His Silent Spring (1962) brought environmental concerns to the American public. It spurred a reversal in national pesticide policy—leading to a nationwide ban on DDT and other pesticides—and the grassroots environmental movement the book inspired led to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency. Carson was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Jimmy Carter. Rachel Carson ( 卡森,1907–1964) was an American marine biologist and nature writer whose writings are credited with advancing the global environmental movement. His Silent Spring (1962) brought environmental concerns to the American public. It spurred a reversal in national pesticide policy—leading to a nationwide ban on DDT and other pesticides—and the grassroots environmental movement the book inspired led to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency. Carson was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Jimmy Carter.marine biologistnature writerenvironmental movementSilent SpringDDTgrassrootsEnvironmental Protection AgencyPresidential Medal of Freedommarine biologistnature writerenvironmental movementSilent SpringDDTgrassrootsEnvironmental Protection AgencyPresidential Medal of Freedom Edward Goldsmith (1928–2009) was an Anglo-French environmentalist, writer and philosopher. He co-authored the influential Blueprint for Survival with, becoming a founding member of the political party “People” (later renamed the Green Party), itself largely inspired by the Blueprint. A Blueprint for Survival was an influential environmentalist text that drew attention to the urgency and magnitude of environmental problems. It recommended that people live in small, decentralized and largely de-industrialized communities. Edward Goldsmith (1928–2009) was an Anglo-French environmentalist, writer and philosopher. He co-authored the influential Blueprint for Survival with, becoming a founding member of the political party “People” (later renamed the Green Party), itself largely inspired by the Blueprint. A Blueprint for Survival was an influential environmentalist text that drew attention to the urgency and magnitude of environmental problems. It recommended that people live in small, decentralized and largely de-industrialized communities.Blueprint for SurvivalGreen PartyBlueprint for SurvivalGreen Party

Ernst Friedrich Schumacher (1911–1977) was an internationally influential economic thinker in Britain. He is best known for his critique of Western economies and his proposals for human-scale, decentralized and appropriate technologies. His 1973 book Small Is Beautiful is among the 100 most influential books published since World War II. Ernst Friedrich Schumacher (1911–1977) was an internationally influential economic thinker in Britain. He is best known for his critique of Western economies and his proposals for human-scale, decentralized and appropriate technologies. His 1973 book Small Is Beautiful is among the 100 most influential books published since World War II.BritainSmall Is BeautifulWorld War IIBritainSmall Is BeautifulWorld War II Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965) was an Alsatian German-French theologian, musician, philosopher, and physician. He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize in 1953 for his philosophy of “Reverence for Life”, expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, now in Gabon, west central Africa. Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965) was an Alsatian German-French theologian, musician, philosopher, and physician. He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize in 1953 for his philosophy of “Reverence for Life”, expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, now in Gabon, west central Africa.AlsatiantheologianphilosopherphysicianNobel Peace PrizeReverence for LifeAlbert Schweitzer HospitalLambarénéGabonAlsatiantheologianphilosopherphysicianNobel Peace PrizeReverence for LifeAlbert Schweitzer HospitalLambarénéGabon Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) was an American ecologist, forester, and environmentalist. He was influential in the development of modern environmental ethics and in the movement for wilderness conservation. Leopold is considered to be the father of wildlife management in the United States. In “The Land Ethic”, a chapter of A Sand County Almanac, Leopold delves into conservation in “The Ecological Conscience” section. He wrote: “Conservation is a state of harmony between men and land.” According to him, curriculum-content guidelines in the late 1940s, when he wrote boiled down to: "obey the law, vote right, join some organizations and practice what conservation is profitable on your own land; the government will do the rest”. Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) was an American ecologist, forester, and environmentalist. He was influential in the development of modern environmental ethics and in the movement for wilderness conservation. Leopold is considered to be the father of wildlife management in the United States. In “The Land Ethic”, a chapter of A Sand County Almanac, Leopold delves into conservation in “The Ecological Conscience” section. He wrote: “Conservation is a state of harmony between men and land.” According to him, curriculum-content guidelines in the late 1940s, when he wrote boiled down to: "obey the law, vote right, join some organizations and practice what conservation is profitable on your own land; the government will do the rest”.Americanecologistforester environmentalistwildernesswildlife managementLand EthicA Sand County AlmanacAmericanecologistforester environmentalistwildernesswildlife managementLand EthicA Sand County Almanac 3. Factions of green politics: Deep ecology is a somewhat recent branch of ecological philosophy (ecosophy) that considers humankind as an integral part of its environment. The philosophy emphasizes the equal value of human and non-human life as well as the importance of the ecosystem and natural processes. It provides a foundation for the environmental and green movements and has led to a new system of environmental ethics. 3. Factions of green politics: Deep ecology is a somewhat recent branch of ecological philosophy (ecosophy) that considers humankind as an integral part of its environment. The philosophy emphasizes the equal value of human and non-human life as well as the importance of the ecosystem and natural processes. It provides a foundation for the environmental and green movements and has led to a new system of environmental ethics.philosophyecosophyhumankind environmentecosystemenvironmentalgreen movementsenvironmental ethicsphilosophyecosophyhumankind environmentecosystemenvironmentalgreen movementsenvironmental ethics

Hard green refers to a branch of the environmentalism movement that considers humans solely as a polluting influence on the environment, and feels that whatever action is needed to repair human-generated damage to the environment should be undertaken no matter what its effect on humanity. These people typically oppose any industrial, agricultural, or resource extraction activity at all, as well as consumerism and shopping. These views fall under vaguely developed philosophies such as “biocentrism”, which views all life as a whole as central to the planet, claiming “equal rights for all species”, and opposes viewing human society as central. This kind of group includes the Voluntary Human Extinction Movement and ecoterrorism. environmentalismVoluntary Human Extinction Movement ecoterrorismenvironmentalismVoluntary Human Extinction Movement ecoterrorism Shallow Ecology movement: Fight against resource depletion. Central objective: the health and affluence of people in the developed countries. Eco-socialism, Green socialism or Socialist ecology is an ideology merging aspects of Marxism, socialism, Green politics, ecology and alter-globalization. Eco- socialists generally believe that the expansion of the capitalist system is the cause of social exclusion, poverty and environmental degradation through globalization and imperialism, under the supervision of repressive states and transstatal structures; they advocate the non-violent dismantling of capitalism and the state, focusing on collective ownership of the means of production by freely associated producers and restoration of the Commons. MarxismsocialismGreen politicsecologyalter-globalizationcapitalist social exclusionpovertyenvironmental degradationglobalization imperialismstatesnon-violentCommonsMarxismsocialismGreen politicsecologyalter-globalizationcapitalist social exclusionpovertyenvironmental degradationglobalization imperialismstatesnon-violentCommons Green liberalism is a term used to refer to liberals who have incorporated green concerns into their ideology. Green liberalism values the earth very highly, and this philosophy highly values the planet being passed down to the next generation unharmed. Green liberalism accepts that the natural world is a system in a state of flux, and does not seek to conserve the natural world as it is. However, it does seek to minimize the damage done by the human species on the natural world, and to aid the regeneration of damaged areas. Green liberalism is a term used to refer to liberals who have incorporated green concerns into their ideology. Green liberalism values the earth very highly, and this philosophy highly values the planet being passed down to the next generation unharmed. Green liberalism accepts that the natural world is a system in a state of flux, and does not seek to conserve the natural world as it is. However, it does seek to minimize the damage done by the human species on the natural world, and to aid the regeneration of damaged areas.liberalsgreenideologyearthnatural world fluxhumanliberalsgreenideologyearthnatural world fluxhuman

Green anarchism is a school of thought within anarchism which puts an emphasis on environmental issues. An important early influence was the thought of the American individualist anarchist Henry David Thoreau and his book Walden. In the late XIX century there emerged an anarchist naturist current within individualist anarchist circles in France, Spain and Portugal. Some green anarchists can be described as anarcho-primitivists (or anti-civilization anarchists. Likewise, there is a strong critique of modern technology among green anarchists, though not all reject it entirely. Important contemporary currents are anarcho-primitivism and social ecology. environmental issues individualist anarchistHenry David ThoreauWaldennaturistindividualist anarchistanarcho-primitivismsocial ecology environmental issues individualist anarchistHenry David ThoreauWaldennaturistindividualist anarchistanarcho-primitivismsocial ecology Ecofeminism is a social and political movement which points to the existence of considerable common ground between environmentalism and feminism,with some currents linking deep ecology and feminism. Ecofeminists argue that a strong parallel exists between the oppression and subordination of women in families and society and the degradation of nature through the construction of differences into conceptual binaries and ideological hierarchies that allow a systematic justification of domination ("power-over power") by subjects classed into higher-ranking categories over objects classed into lower-ranking categories (e.g. man over woman, culture over nature, white over black). They also explore the intersectionality between sexism, the domination of nature, racism, speciesism, and other characteristics of social inequality. In some of their current work, ecofeminists argue that the capitalist and patriarchal systems that predominate throughout the world reveal a triple domination of the Global South (people who live in the Third World), women, and nature. This domination and exploitation of women, of poorly resourced peoples and of nature sits at the core of the ecofeminist analysis. Ecofeminism is a social and political movement which points to the existence of considerable common ground between environmentalism and feminism,with some currents linking deep ecology and feminism. Ecofeminists argue that a strong parallel exists between the oppression and subordination of women in families and society and the degradation of nature through the construction of differences into conceptual binaries and ideological hierarchies that allow a systematic justification of domination ("power-over power") by subjects classed into higher-ranking categories over objects classed into lower-ranking categories (e.g. man over woman, culture over nature, white over black). They also explore the intersectionality between sexism, the domination of nature, racism, speciesism, and other characteristics of social inequality. In some of their current work, ecofeminists argue that the capitalist and patriarchal systems that predominate throughout the world reveal a triple domination of the Global South (people who live in the Third World), women, and nature. This domination and exploitation of women, of poorly resourced peoples and of nature sits at the core of the ecofeminist analysis.environmentalismfeminismdeep ecologyfeminismoppressionwomennatureintersectionalitysexismracismspeciesismsocial inequalityGlobal SouthThird Worldenvironmentalismfeminismdeep ecologyfeminismoppressionwomennatureintersectionalitysexismracismspeciesismsocial inequalityGlobal SouthThird World Ecofascism can be used positively for some radical environmentalism which are openly affiliated with neo-fascism, or which share conceptual similarities with fascist theories, including various white nationalist and third positionist. Ecofascism can be used positively for some radical environmentalism which are openly affiliated with neo-fascism, or which share conceptual similarities with fascist theories, including various white nationalist and third positionist.radical environmentalismneo-fascismwhite nationalistthird positionistradical environmentalismneo-fascismwhite nationalistthird positionist

Chapter Seven New Leftism Introduction: The New Left was the left-wing movements in the 1960s and 1970s that, unlike the earlier leftist focus on union.

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Chapter Seven New Leftism Introduction: The New Left was the left-wing movements in the 1960s and 1970s that, unlike the earlier leftist focus on union.

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Presentation on theme: "Chapter Seven New Leftism Introduction: The New Left was the left-wing movements in the 1960s and 1970s that, unlike the earlier leftist focus on union."— Presentation transcript:

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